Aryan(Nordic Alpine) Aliens

Good Bye from Lord Wilhelm White

2008-10-06T18:53:00.004+13:00

Good bye

I had fun making this blog for my Race.

FROM WILHELM VON WOLFGANG WHITE

MY FAMILY TREE

ERIKSON,
HANOVER,
WINDSOR,
WHITE
DAWSON
WEST
O'BRAIN
O'CONNER
MACDONALDS
MACMANISS
ADOLFELM
BLITZ
OLAFS
BILLINGR
KNIGHTLEY
HESSEN
Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne

Richard Colley Wesley

Anna Maria Walburga

Kaiser of Germany
Kings of England.

Spencer_family

The following individuals are not Spencers, but are also descended from the same Henry Spencer via one or more lines of descent.

Charles Darwin (1809–1882) - author of The Origin of Species
George Washington (1731/2 - 1799) - U.S. President

I am Royal
Noble
Aryan

Now i say good bye.

European Races

2008-10-06T18:46:00.003+13:00

THE BODILY CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EUROPEAN RACES

In the explanations of the illustrations C (or Sk) = cephalic (or cranial) index; F = facial index; E = colour of eyes; H = colour of hair. But colouring is only stated when the illustration does not show it. Female skulls are indicated as such. In pictures of the living the name is only given when the subject is already fairly well known through other portraits.

In the case of all illustrations (in particular where no index numbers or other measurements are given) the racial designation refers only to those features which can be seen on the picture.

The illustrations are meant to be not so much statements about the subject portrayed, as examples showing the racial characteristics. Anthropology, as a social science, deals in general with the individual only in so far as he can be taken as representative of a group. The group is always the starting-point for anthropology.

REMARKS ON THE TERM 'RACE,' ON THE DETERMINATION OF FIVE EUROPEAN RACES, AND ON SKULL MEASUREMENT

WE find, in general, the most confused notions as to how the European peoples are composed of various races. We often hear, for example, a 'white race' or a 'Caucasian race' spoken of, to which the Europeans are said to belong. But probably, were he asked, no one could tell us what its bodily characteristics are. It is, or should be, quite clear that a 'race' must be embodied in a group of human beings each of whom presents the same physical and mental picture. Physical and mental differences, however, are very great, not only within Europe (often called the home of the 'white' or 'Caucasian' race) and within each of the countries in it, but even within some small district in one of the latter. There is, therefore, no 'German race,' or 'Russian race,' or 'Spanish race.' The terms 'nation' and 'race' must be kept apart.

People may be heard speaking of a 'Germanic,' a 'Latin,' and a 'Slav' race; but it is at once seen that in those lands where Germanic, Romance, or Slav tongues are spoken there is the same bewildering variety in the outward appearance of their peoples, and never any such uniformity as suggests a race.

We see, therefore, that the human groups in question -- the 'Germans,' the 'Latins,' and the 'Slavs' -- form a linguistical, not a racial combination.

The following consideration will probably be enough to keep racial and linguistical grouping distinct from one another. Is a North American negro -- a man, that is, speaking American English, a Germanic tongue, as his own -- is he a German, taking this term in its wider meaning? The usual answer would be: No; for a German is tall, fair, and light-eyed. But now a fresh perplexity comes in: In Scotland are found many tall, fair, light-eyed men and women, speaking Keltic. Are there, then, Kelts who look like 'Germans' ? It is from Kelts (according to a still prevalent belief in south Germany) that the dark, short people of Germany come. Many of the ancient Greeks and Romans are described as like Germans. Fair, light-eyed men and women are not seldom met with in the Caucasus. There are Italians of 'Germanic' appearance. I have taken the anthropometrical measurements of a Spaniard with this appearance. On the other hand, there are very many Germans, men belonging, that is, to a people speaking a Germanic tongue, who have no Germanic appearance whatever. But are not the people of Germany 'sprung from the old Germans'? How are these contradictions to be reconciled? For there can be no doubt that at first sight they are contradictions.

It is only by a careful examination of the term 'race' that a way out is found. Anyone who is going to deal with race questions must be on his guard against confusing Race and People (generally marked by a common language), or Race and Nationality, or (as in the case of the Jewish people) Blood kinship and Faith. 'Race' is a conception belonging to the comparative study of man (Anthropology), which in the first place (as Physical Anthropology) only inquires into the measurable and calculable details of the bodily structure, and measures, for instance, the height, the length of the limbs, the skull and its parts, and determines the colour of the skin (after a colour scale), and of the hair and eyes. Martin's excellent Lehrbuch der Anthropologie (Jena, 1914) may give the layman some idea through its size of the great number of individual measurements and determinations that has to be made before a human body has been anthropologically registered in all its details. Besides the inquiry into the bodily racial structure there is the inquiry into the psychological composition properly belonging to each race.

And what indeed is a 'Race'? The study of races and racial questions has suffered much harm through the circumstance that many of the books and other works that have been written about races (and so-called races), and, above all, books that have drawn, or sought to draw, general and philosophical conclusions from an examination into racial questions, have often said nothing to show what they really understand by 'race.' I had, therefore, in my Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes to go into details, which here are only summarized.

A race shows itself in an individual human group, which in turn only produces its like.

By an individual human group we are here to understand: a human group marking itself off from any other human group through its own peculiar combination of bodily and mental characteristics. Thus putting these two statements together, we reach the following result:

A race shows itself in a human group which is marked off from every other human group through its own proper combination of bodily and mental characteristics, and in turn produces only its like.

From this we see at once that Ethnology yields hardly any example of such a true-breeding human group -- that is, a race -- appearing anywhere as one people, or with one form of language, of government, or of faith. In particular, most of the peoples of Europe show a mingling of the five European races, some, a mingling of only two or three of them; while Eastern Europe shows an even simpler mixture. What generally distinguishes the European peoples from one another, therefore, is, from the anthropological standpoint, only the proportions of the mixture of the races in each case.

In all the European peoples the following five races, pure and crossed with one another, are represented:

The Nordic race: tall, long-headed, narrow-faced, with prominent chin; narrow nose with high bridge; soft, smooth or wavy light (golden-fair) hair; deep-sunk light (blue or grey) eyes; rosy-white skin.

The Mediterranean race: short, long-headed, narrow-faced, with less prominent chin; narrow nose with high bridge; soft, smooth or curly brown or black hair; deep-sunk brown eyes; brownish skin.

The Dinaric race: tall, short-headed, narrow-faced, with a steep back to the head, looking as though it were cut away; very prominent nose, which stands right out, with a high bridge, and at the cartilage sinks downward at its lower part, becoming rather fleshy; curly brown or black hair; deep-sunk brown eyes; brownish skin,

The Alpine race: short, short-headed, broad-faced, with chin not prominent; flat, short nose with low bridge; stiff, brown or black hair; brown eyes, standing out; yellowish-brownish skin.

The East Baltic race: short, short-headed, broad-faced, with heavy, massive under jaw, chin not prominent, flat, rather broad, short nose with low bridge; stiff, light (ash-blond) hair; light (grey or whitish blue) eyes, standing out; light skin with a grey undertone.¹

But how do we come to determine these five races for Europe?

A consideration of the ethnographical map shows remarkable correlations between the bodily characteristics there given. For instance, in England the areas of tallest stature are at the same time those of the lightest colouring; while in the north of France an area of lightest colouring is likewise an area of tallest stature, and at the same time of longest heads. Central and southern France show dark colouring and rather low stature, but the shape of the head varies, growing longer as the Mediterranean and south-west coasts are left; so that we are led to surmise that there are two long-headed races represented in France: a light, tall one in the north, and a dark, low one in the south; while in central France dark colouring, low stature, and brachycephaly are all correlated, and thus suggest a third race. In Germany likewise there is an area in the north-west of tall stature, light colouring, and longish heads, with narrow faces; and in the south-east one with tall stature also, but with dark colouring and rather short heads. In south-west Germany dark colouring points to low stature, short heads, broad faces. These correlations between characteristics are often so strong that when one characteristic increases in a district others increase or decrease in more or less the same proportion. The maps of the Norwegian district of Möre will make this evident (see Maps I-V).

When, however, an ethnographical survey is taken too of individual countries or parts of countries, and the recorded characteristics (stature, shape of head and face, colour of skin, hair, and eyes) are set out in numerical tables, so that attention is directed not towards the local distribution of the population, but towards its grouping on the basis of its characteristics (it being looked on as a racial mixture uniformly distributed throughout its territory) -- when such a survey is taken, correlations among the characteristics are again found. Thus, to take an example, in north-west and west Germany among the taller element light colouring and long heads are found relatively far oftener, while among the shorter element this is the case with dark colouring, just as in the Norwegian district of Möre, and in northern and central France. In south-west Germany, as in the whole area from the eastern Alps as far as Greece, tall stature is the sign for dark colouring, short heads, and also for the characteristically cut-away back of the head, and the bold, outstanding nose. Finally, after a careful consideration of these correlated characteristics, we reach true, unspoilt pictures of the several races making up a given population. Even if members of the races are not to be found in all their purity owing to a long intermingling, the correlations, by making a definite picture of the related characteristics, would show which races have built up the mixed population in question.


Fig. 1 - Doliochocephalic Skull (Index, 72.9)	Fig. 2 - Brachycephalic Skull (Index 88.3)

Fig. 3 - Narrow Face (Index about 93.5)	Fig. 4 - Broad Face - (Index about 83.5)

However, this mingling has not yet gone so far in Europe and other parts of the world that we cannot find more or less clear ocular proof in certain areas of a strong preponderance of one or the other race. North-west Europe, especially Scandinavia, shows a certain homogeneity in its population which strikes even the careless onlooker with its definite combination of bodily characteristics: tall, fair, narrow-faced men and women, with long heads standing out over the nape of the neck. The Austrian Alps show likewise, even to a careless eye, a constantly appearing definite type described ethnographically as the Dinaric race; among Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, Albanians, and Montenegrins it is even more striking. Spain and southern Italy show that they are settled by a relatively homogeneous population; and the same is true of North-east Europe, and of many small, mostly mountainous districts in Central Europe. Finally it is from the observation of such relatively homogeneous human groups in definite areas, when anthropology has first of all only determined the most important physical characteristics of each race, that other features, not yet submitted to measurement, are discovered; and the mental behaviour of such a relatively homogeneous human group may yield suggestions as to the psychological constitution of the race concerned.

We cannot here go into the methods of anthropological measurement. Martin's Lehrbuch der Anthropologie (1914), and the section on 'Technik und Methoden der physischen Anthropologie' by Mollison in the volume Anthropologie ('Kultur der Gegenwart,' Teil iii., Abt. v., 1923), may be mentioned here.²The terms 'long-headed' (or 'dolichocephalic'), 'narrow-faced,' 'short-headed' (or 'brachycephalic'), 'broad-faced,' however, need a short explanation.

A skull is dolichocephalic (long) when its length from front to back (as it is seen from above) is considerably greater than that from side to side; it is brachycephalic (short) when the length from side to side is more nearly or almost equal to the length from front to back, or even (as is sometimes found) actually equal to it.

The greatest length and breadth of the head are measured (in a fixed way and with reference to fixed planes in the skull), and the cross measurement is then expressed as a percentage of the measurement from front to back; the percentage so found is called the Cranial or Cephalic Index.³

If a skull, therefore, is as broad as it is long, it represents very decided brachycephaly with index 100. If the breadth of a skull is 70 per cent. of the length this is said to be dolichocephalic (long) with index 70. An index up to 74.9 is dolichocephalic (long), from 75 to 79.9 it is mesocephalic (middling or medium), from 80 upwards it is brachycephalic (short).

The facial shape is laid down as the proportion between the height of the face and the bizygomatic diameter, the former being reckoned as a percentage of the latter. The height of the face is (speaking approximately) the distance between the bridge of the nose at the level of the ends of the interior hairs of the eyebrows and the lowest (not the foremost) point in the chin. The bizygomatic diameter is the extreme outward distance between the zygomatic arches (cheek-bones). The percentage number thus arrived at is called the (morphological) facial index. Measured on the skull, a facial index up to 84.9 is broad, from 85 to 89.9 it is middling or medium, from 90 upwards it is narrow. Measured on the living head the limits are taken lower (83.9, 84 to 87.9, 88).

A higher cephalic index, therefore, shows a shorter head, a lower one shows a longer head; while a higher facial index shows a narrower, and a lower one shows a broader face.

These definitions are important for the understanding of Maps II, III, VIII, IX, and XIII.

My last Post, Bye

From Wilhelm White

use this for your Race

Hail ALL Aryans

Keep having babies.

THE NORDIC RACE

2008-10-06T18:33:00.002+13:00

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordic_race

Meyers Blitz-Lexikon (Leipzig, 1932) shows a famous German war hero (Karl von Müller) as an example of the Nordic type.

The Roman emperor Augustus. H.F.K. Günther (1927) argued that the description of Augustus in Suetonius' Lives of twelve Caesars suggested that he displayed "Nordic qualities" (e.g. that he was "fair", had "light eyes" and a "mild expression")

Augustus

Augustus is described as fair-haired and light-eyed. Augustus' facial features are clearly of northern provenance. As we'll see below, cranial form can't be accurately determined from Imperial Roman sculpture. But, if we extrapolate from the extant Roman skeletal remains, Augustus was most likely dolicho- or mesocephalic. Guenther (1957) classifies Augustus as predominantly Nordic.


Nordic Swede	Emperor Augustus

Blond-haired, blue-eyed German Nordic (left); blond-haired, blue-eyed Roman Augustus (right).

THE NORDIC RACE

THE Nordic race is tall, slender. The long legs contribute towards the stately height, which for the man averages about 1.74 metres. The form both of the whole body and of each of the limbs, as also that of the neck, hands, and feet, is one of strength combined with slenderness. The Nordic race is long-headed and narrow-faced. The cephalic index lies round about 75, the facial index is over 90. The much greater length of the head, compared with its breadth, is more specially due to the back of the head jutting far over the nape of the neck. The back of the head, too, is in general relatively compact, so that the Nordic shows an upper part of his neck above the coat collar, before the line of the head turns backwards. The Nordic head is often strikingly narrow about the temples, as though it were pressed in here from both sides. The face is narrow, with a fairly narrow forehead, narrow high-standing nose, and a narrow under jaw with an angularly-set, clear-cut chin.


Fig. 5 – Swedish Swimmer (By Börjeson) Nordic Figure	Fig. 6 – English Officer, Nordic Figure

The Nordic forehead shows (in the adult, less clearly in the woman) mounds above the eyes, standing out over the eyebrows, and following a more upward direction from the middle of the forehead outwards than the brows (which take a downward course).

The cast of features in the Nordic race has often a characteristically bold effect owing to the threefold break in the line of the profile: first at the flattish, backward-bent forehead, then at the high-bridged nose, straight or bending outwards, and lastly at the firm, sharp-cut chin. The fleshy parts help to give an impression of a narrow, clear-cut face. The line where the eyelids meet (from corner to corner of the eye) is horizontal, or rather droops slightly about the outer corners. The lips are mostly thin; the groove from nose to mouth is narrow and sharp-cut.



Figs. 7-10 – A Nordic Skull, seen from the side, the front, the top and behind. Sk, 70; F, 96.4

The skin of the Nordic race is rosy and fair; it allows the blood to glimmer through, and so it looks alive, often quite lustrous, and always rather cool, or fresh, 'like milk and blood.' The veins shine through (at least in youth) and show 'the blue blood.'

The hair is smooth and sleek or wavy in texture, in childhood it may be curly. Each hair is thin and soft and often 'like silk.' In colour it is fair, and, whether light or dark blond, always shows a touch of gold, or a reddish undertone. Nordic hair is best termed gold-blond, but it should be borne in mind that both the lighter (especially in childhood) and the darker (especially after childhood) blond hair is found.

In men and women who are light blond in youth there is often a later darkening to dark blond, or even to dark brown hair. This last case is probably to be explained on the supposition that with such persons inherited Nordic tendencies in hair-colouring are overlaid later by tendencies other than Nordic.

Red hair, in many cases, so long as it is reddish blond or golden-red, can be called Nordic. True carroty hair, however, must be held to be a phenomenon which (like Albinism) may be found in any race (Rutilism, Erythrism).

The beard in the Nordic race has curly or rippling blond to red-blond hair; it grows fairly thick.

The Nordic eye, that is, its iris, is blue, blue-grey, or grey. Although grey eyes are common in the East Baltic race, we must assume that they belong also to the Nordics, for they are found, too, in areas beyond the reach of any East Baltic strain. Nordic eyes often have something shining, something radiant about them. Their expression can grow hard, and generally has something decided about it, but a kindly though always decided expression is not seldom to be seen.


Fig. 11 – Sweden	Fig. 12 – Norway; E, brown; H, brown; C, 73.77; G, 100

Fig. 13 – Sweden	Fig. 14 – Norway

Fig. 15 – Sweden	Fig. 16 – Norway


Figs. 17a, 17b – Norway; C, 77 – 53; F, 91 – 60

Figs. 18a, 18b – Norway; C, 77 – 36; F, 92 – 12; brother of the above

Fig. 19 – Sweden	Fig. 20 – Norway; C, 77 – 40; F, 91 – 66; E. blue

Figs. 21a, 21b – Sweden

Fig. 22 – Norway	Fig. 23 – Norway

Figs. 24a, 24b – Norway


Fig. 25 – Norway	Fig. 26 – Norway

Fig. 27 – Norway	Fig. 28 – Norway

Fig. 29 – Prizewinner in a Swedish beauty competition to find the most “Swedish looking” Swedish woman	Fig. 30 – Norway (Slight East Baltic Strain?)

Fig. 30a – Englishman from Norfolk, Nordic	Fig. 30b – English Colonel, circa 1900, Nordic or predominantly Nordic)

Fig. 30c – Portrait of a Man, Romeny. Predominantly Nordic	Fig. 30d – English Officer, predominantly Nordic

Fig. 30e – Thomas Jonathon (Stonewall) Jackson; Nordic or predominantly Nordic	Fig. 30f – Peter MacTaggart, of Glasgow; Blond. Blue-eyed, medium sized, long body, short legs. Nordic


Figs. 31a, 31b – Sweden – Nordic

Fig. 32 – England – Actress – Mediterranean Strain	Fig. 33 – Germany; E, blue (Slight Mediterranean Strain?)

Figs. 34a, 34b – Esthonian – Chin too retreating, nose too short

Figs. 35a, 35b – Denmark

Fig. 36 – Poland. Sienkiewicz, writer. Strain of dark-eyed race.	Fig. 37 – Australia

Fig. 38 – Austria	Fig. 39 – Corsica; H. fair; chin too retreating


Fig. 40 – Scotland	Fig. 41 – Scotland

Figs. 42a, 42b – Scotland. C, 78.53; F, 97.72

Fig. 43 – England	Fig. 44 – Germany

Fig. 45 – Germany – Head too broad	Fig. 46 – Germany. Ernst Haeckel

Fig. 47 – Germany	Fig. 48 – Germany

Fig. 49 - England. Mediterranean Strain	Fig. 50 – West Switzerland; Mediterranean Strain; E, brown; H, black; skin, rosy-fair


Figs. 51a, 51b – Spain – Asturias; H, fair; C, 78.92; F, 99.27 - Predominantly Nordic

Fig. 52 – Sweden. Seven sisters, Nordic or predominantly Nordic

THE ALPINE RACE

2008-10-06T18:29:00.001+13:00

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_race

Meyers Blitz-Lexikon (Leipzig, 1932) shows the German cartographer Heinrich Kiepert as an example of the Alpine type.

THE ALPINE RACE

THIS race is short, stocky, and square-built, thus offering, although of nearly the same height, an appearance which is quite different from that of the Mediterranean race. The latter is elegant and slender, the Alpine race is thick-set and broad. The average height of the Alpine man is about 1.63 metres. This small height is brought about by the relatively short, squat legs. This broadness and shortness is repeated in all the details: in the broadness of the hand and its short fingers, in the short, broad feet, in the thick, short calves. Seen in relation to its height the Mediterranean body gives an effect of heaviness. The pelvis in the woman would seem to be narrower than in the other European races. The shape of the head is likewise broad.


Fig. 98 – Vorarlberg. Predominantly Alpine.	Fig. 99 – English Soldier. Predominantly Alpine.

The Alpine race is short-headed and broad-faced. The cephalic index is about 88 on the average, the facial index under 83. In the Alpine race the length of the head is only a little or barely greater than the breadth, owing to the relatively considerable measurement of this latter. The Alpine head may be called round. It juts out only slightly over the nape, and this back part is fairly roomy, so that in the Alpine man only a little of the neck is to be seen above the coat-collar.


Figs. 100–101 – Alpine skull seen from the front and from the side; Sk, 84.61; F, 83.33

Figs. 102-103 – The same skull as Figs. 100-101, seen from above and from behind; Sk, 84.61; F, 83.33

The cast of countenance gives the effect of dullness, owing to the steeply rising forehead, vaulted backwards, the rather low bridge to the nose, the short, rather flat nose, set clumsily over the upper lip, the unprominent, broad, rounded chin.

The fleshy parts carry on the impression of broadness and roundness, for the Alpine face, broad in itself, has often layers of fat, and in general, it would seem, a thicker outer covering. Deposits of fat are found on the upper part and the bridge of the nose, on the cheek-bones, and in and over the upper lid of the eye. The eyes give an effect of smallness (contrary to the effect of the eyes of the narrow-faced European races), since the opening between the lids is narrower and shorter; this opening sometimes takes a slightly upward direction outwards. The groove (philtrum) between the septum of the nose and the upper lip is often rather faintly marked. In old age, when the tissues become flabby and the deposits of fat disappear, the Alpines, especially the women, may grow very ugly.


Figs. 104a, 104b – Germany (Baden); back of the head projects too far; Nordic strain.

Fig. 105 – Germany (Black Forest, Baden)	Fig. 106 – Germany (Black forest, Baden)

The skin is a yellowish brown and has a very lifeless effect. The hair is stiff, sometimes almost wiry. The individual hair is thick. Its colour is brown to black; the beard is thinner than in the narrow-faced European races; the hair on the body, too, seems to be scantier.

The colour of the eyes is brown to brown-black, but has not so warm an effect as the brown of the Mediterranean eye. The expression of the eyes is dull, uncommunicative, or even sullen, at any rate without joyousness, an effect which is strengthened by their flat setting and the narrow opening of the lids.

THE ALPINE RACE GALLERY

ALPINE OR PREDOMINANTLY ALPINE


Fig. 107 – Czecho-slovakia (Prague), Czech poet	Fig. 108 – Norway. Nordic strain

Fig. 109 – France. H. de Balzac	Fig. 110 – Ukraine. Sanditzko, Art patron, Nordic strain


Fig. 111a, 111b – Ukraine (Ekaterinoslav district)

Fig. 112 – Basque from Spain	Fig. 113 – Germany (Bavaria)


Fig. 114 – France – Dinaric strain?	Fig. 115 – Belgium (Walloon)

Fig. 116 – France – Paul Broca, anthropologist, Nordic strain. E, blue.	Fig. 117 – Austria (Tyrol)

Fig. 118 - South Sweden. Strong Nordic strain, C, 82.53; F, 89.13	Fig. 119 – Portugal. Authoress. Mediterranean (and Negro?) strain. Jewish descent?

IS Flavian a Race of Nordic?

2008-10-06T18:25:00.000+13:00

Are the Flavian a separate race from Nordics?

Guenther (1957) classfies the Flavian dynasty (Vespasian and his sons, Titus and Domitian) as predominantly Phalian. Phalians are tall, robust, and light-pigmented. They have broad faces, but long skulls, being essentially a modern survival of the Cro-Magnon physical type.

The Flavians were tall and fair-haired -- unsurprising considering their family name is derived from a Latin word for "blond". Domitian is also described as blue-eyed and ruddy (Sieglin 1935).

THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE

2008-10-06T18:20:00.001+13:00

THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE

THE Mediterranean race is short, gracefully slender, with an average height for the men of about 1.60 metres. The Mediterranean figure has the effect of a smaller Nordic one, the relative length of the legs is even more pronounced than in the Nordic race. On no account, therefore, should the Mediterranean race be represented as squat or thick-set; it is graceful and slender down to every detail of its build; and the slender effect is hardly lessened by the broad hips of the Mediterranean woman.

Fig. 53

Fig. 54 Female Mediterranean Skull, Sk, 75.84; F, 94.21

The shape of the head is the same as in the Nordic race; the Mediterranean race is, too, long-headed and narrow-faced, and has the back of the head projecting over the nape. The forehead, however, compared with the Nordic forehead, is perhaps relatively somewhat lower, and its backward slope is not so great nor the surface so flat, but somewhat more rounded towards the sides, so that it goes backward in a vault rather than in a plane. The nose is relatively somewhat shorter, and is seldom so sharply drawn as is often seen in the Nordic race; but it is likewise generally straight, or slightly curved outwards. The chin is less prominent and more rounded. The resulting profile has a softer look than the Nordic. If the Nordic race inclines to a sharp, bold profile, the Mediterranean inclines to a pleasant, agreeable, as it were more womanly, profile.

The fleshy parts show perhaps more of an inclination than in the Nordic race to a slight fullness; the mouth is perhaps somewhat broader; the lips are fuller, slightly more puffed out; and the nose is perhaps rather more fleshy. The skin is brownish, and gives the impression of a warm suppleness. The blood hardly shows through, so that red cheeks are not usual; and the lips are bluish, cherry-coloured, rather than red. The texture of the hair is sometimes smooth or sleek, but oftener curly; each hair is thin and soft. The colouring is brown or black and has no golden undertone, such as is still found with very dark blond hair. The dark eyebrows are perhaps somewhat thicker than in the Nordic race. The beard is brown or black, and fairly thick.

The eyes are brown to brown-black, and likewise have a warm colour-tone. The expression of the eyes is lively, bright, and merry.

Fig. 55 – Chile – South America
Mediterranean or predominantly Mediterranean


Fig. 56 – Distinguished Brazilian, Mediterranean	Fig. 57 – Corsica, Mediterranean

Fig. 58 – England (Wales)	Fig. 59 – Italy – Puccini, Dinaric Strain

Fig. 60 – Algeria, Negro Strain	Fig. 61 - Algeria

Fig. 62 - France (Lyons)	Fig. 63 – Corsica, Dinaric or S. W. Asiatic Strain

THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE


Fig. 64 – Rumania, Alpine Strain – Flat Nose	Fig. 65 – Italy

Fig. 66 – Southern France (Arles)	Fig. 67 – Spain (Madrid), Authoress

Fig. 68 – Spain	Fig. 69 – Rumania

Fig. 70 – Rumania, Dinaric Strain?	Fig. 71 – Southern Italy (Naples) MASCAGNI Slight Negro Strain? Jewish Descent?

Fig. 72 – Spain, Alpine Strain	Fig. 73 – Spain

Fig. 74 – Italy, G. Giusti, Poet, 1809-50	Fig. 75 – France, Th. Gericault, Painter, 1791-1824

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_race

Meyers Blitz-Lexikon (Leipzig, 1932) shows a Corsican man as an example of the Mediterranean type.

THE DINARIC RACE

2008-10-06T18:17:00.001+13:00

THIS race is tall, with an average height of about 1.73 metres for the men, and gives an impression of sturdy slenderness. Like the foregoing, it has relatively long legs, while on the other hand the length of the arm in the Dinaric race seems to be relatively less than in the other European races. The neck seems to be somewhat thicker than in the Nordic race, the joints of the limbs not so small. The shape of the head is brachycephalic and narrow-faced. The cephalic index is about 85 to 87. The length of the head is only a little more than the breadth, because the back of it barely comes beyond the nape and, indeed, has the look of being cut away. The high back of the head is often merely the continuation of the nape. Many observers call the Dinaric head a 'high head'; and this popular expression well describes a head so shaped that brachycephaly is here combined with a narrow face. The narrow face of the Dinaric race is mainly owing to the comparatively long nose and the high, firm chin. The Nordic face strikes one rather as 'narrow,' the Dinaric as 'long.' The forehead in the Dinaric race is relatively broader and often probably higher than in the Nordic race. It shows, too, like the Nordic forehead, mounds over the eyes, but they lie lower down, so that the brows are often set on them.


Figs. 76-78 – Dinaric or predominantly Dinaric

Fig. 79 – Dinaric Skull with especially marked Dinaric nose, and especially steep back to the head, Sk, 84.21; F, 100.81

The profile shows a forehead that is only slightly turned backwards, but which, like the Nordic forehead, lies in a plane; and a nose which stands well out at the bone of the high bridge, dropping downwards at the cartilage, and which often makes a sharp angle downwards from the cartilage (aquiline nose), and has a fleshy ending. The Dinaric nose seen sideways shows more of the septum than in the other European races; and the septum is more arched.

The chin is high and also more rounded than in the Nordic race.

The fleshy parts show characteristic details. Mention has been made that the nose becomes fleshy at its lower part. The lips, too, particularly the under lip, are fuller, or at least broader, than in the Nordic race. The fleshy part of the lower half of the face had an effect of solidity. Among the men deep furrows from the nostrils to the corners of the mouth are seen far oftener than in the other European races. The upper lid has often a 'heavy' effect. It is often without that slight covering fold that nearly always crosses this lid in the other races, so that it often has a peculiarly smooth look. In the Dinaric race there would seem to be a particularly high proportion of fleshy and relatively big ears.

The skin is brownish.

The hair is generally curly, seldom smooth, and it is fine. Its growth is thick, especially on the body and at the beard. Thick moustaches are often met with, as also heavy eyebrows. The hair is brown to black. Dinaric, like Mediterranean women, have a tendency to a light growth of dark hair on the upper lip.

The eyes are brown to brown-black. The expression of the eyes has often something defiant and self-conscious, and sometimes merry and bluff about it.


Fig. 80 – Basel; J. Burckhardt, historian	Fig. 81 – Austro-Hungarian General

Fig. 82 – Germany (Upper Bavaria)	Fig. 83 – Germany (Baden)

THE DINARIC RACE

DINARIC OR PREDOMINANTLY DINARIC


Figs. 84a, 84b – Austria (Vienna) C, 85.50; F 90.4 (with loss of teeth); 75 years old; E, brow with dull blue outer ring.

Fig. 85 – Ukraine. Przhevalsky, traveler	Fig. 86 – England – Mediterranean Strain

Fig. 87 – German speaking district of Gottschee


Fig. 88 – Rumania. Nordic or East Baltic strain	Fig. 89 – Rumania – Mediterranean strain

Fig. 90 – Italy. P. Palaghi, painter	Fig. 91 – Tyrol

Fig. 92 – Italy, singer	Fig. 93 – Italy. St. Aloe, scientist

Fig. 94 – Germany (Bavaria)	Fig. 95 – Austria (Tyrol) Mediterranean strain

Fig. 96 – Poland. Chopin, composer. E, blue, H, fair. Nordic-Dinaric	Fig. 97 – Germany. Rückert. Poet. Nordic Dinaric

THE EAST BALTIC RACE

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THE EAST BALTIC RACE

Fig. 120 – Tavastland Finn

THE East Baltic race is of about the same, or only a little greater, height as the Alpine race, and, like it, is stocky and broad. The breadth and stockiness is even more pronounced in the East Baltic race than in the Alpine; and there is, furthermore, the certain coarseness of bone which is so characteristic of it. The relatively great breadth of shoulder in the East Baltic race is particularly marked, and gives a coarsening effect. The legs, hands, and feet are short and heavy as in the Alpine race.

The East Baltic head, too, gives a broad and coarse-boned effect. It is relatively large and heavy, and in particular the face has a massive effect compared with the cranial portion. This is heightened by the characteristic under jaw, which is massive and heavy, and broad, short, and bony in structure, with an unprominent chin. The cephalic index is on the whole somewhat lower than in the Alpine race; this would seem to arise from the fact that while the East Baltic head has an equally remarkable breadth, the back of it is slightly more arched out. The facial index is somewhat higher than in the Alpine race, because while the face has the same remarkable breadth, it is a little higher than in the latter. This is due to the higher under jaw in the East Baltic face, and the greater height of both jaws in the region of the alveoli (tooth-sockets).

The countenance has a dull cast, as in the Alpine race. It has, however, characteristics of its own: the forehead is not so much arched backwards as set backwards, but at a small angle. The root or upper part of the nose lies even flatter than in the Alpine race, but in its middle and lower parts the East Baltic nose rises on the whole more from the face than the Alpine. The East Baltic nose is bent in, and has a particularly 'ugly' effect in that it is at the same time turned up at the lower part, and lies broader across its opening than is usually seen in the Alpine race. Now and then very short noses are seen in East Baltic men and women (cp. Figs. 133 and 135).



Figs. 121-124 – East Baltic or predominantly East Baltic

The position of the jaws (upper against lower) shows a tendency in the East Baltic race to a forward set, while in the other European races the jaws lie more or less one against the other. The massive, heavy under jaw has an unprominent, blunt chin; its lower outline, and the outline behind, meet more nearly at a right angle than in the other European races. Seen from the front the cheek-bones stand somewhat apart from one another (in a lateral and at the same time forward direction). The front view shows, too, the (according to the general ideas of beauty in Europe) 'ugly' nose, with its nostrils visible from the front and the broad flat-lying cartilage; it shows too, again, the breadth of the under jaw, which, especially in the region of the submaxillary angle, is very considerable. The front view also shows how the jaws are set slightly forward.


Figs. 125a, 125b – Sweden (East Baltic)

Figs. 126a, 126b – Finland. Predominantly East Baltic

Figs. 127a, 127b – Finland – Nordic with East Baltic Strain

The fleshy parts show fewer deposits of fat than in the Alpine race; the coarseness of the skull bones is not hidden. The wrinkles from the cartilage of the nose towards the corners of the mouth seem often to be rather deep, and meet (apparently oftener in the women) in a Gothic arch rounded at the top, this being due to the fact that they seem to meet on the bridge above the lowest third of the nose. The nose is often markedly uptilted just in the region of the wings.

The opening between the lids rises a little (more clearly in the woman) towards the outside; it is, as in the Alpine race, narrower and shorter than in the narrow-faced races of Europe, for which reason, too, the East Baltic eye looks small. The distance between the inner corners of the eyes is greater in the East Baltic race than in the other European races; the opening of the mouth looks broader, the lips wider and their line less clear.

In old age there is a strong tendency to form wrinkles as in the Alpine race.

The skin is fair, but not rosy; it does not let the blood glimmer through, so that it never looks to have the life or brightness of the Nordic skin. There is always a grey under-tone to the East Baltic skin, which may often be so strong that one would hardly call this skin fair; not seldom it seems to have an 'olive-grey' (Retzius) colouring.

The hair has a hard, even a stiff, texture. Each hair is (as in the Alpine race) thick. The hair of the beard, too, is stiff; it grows thin, although the individual hairs may grow fairly long. The East Baltic hair is fair, but more inclined to be ash-blond than gold-blond. The golden or reddish undertone of the Nordic race is wanting; in its stead a grey undertone is shown, which may be more, or may be less, decided. Thus the East Baltic hair shows shades from faded blond shot with grey down to more or less dark ash-blond. East Baltic hair might be called ash-blond as against the gold-blond Nordic hair. In childhood both the Nordic and the East Baltic race often show whity-yellow flaxen hair. All over the east of Europe, where the latter race is more strongly represented, red hair is less often found than in North-west Europe, where the Nordic race is more strongly represented.

The colour of the eyes in the East Baltic race is grey, grey-blue, or blue; blue seems rarer, the blue East Baltic eye being mainly watery blue, or even bluey-white (the 'white-eyed Finns' is a saying). That brightness, or even radiance, which belongs to many Nordic eyes, is lacking in the East Baltic eye. Its expression is often sullen, not seldom it is gloomy, but withal stronger or at least harder than in the Alpine race.

Gallery
http://www.white-history.com/earlson/hfk/ebracegal1.htm

The Jew

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RACIAL STRAINS FROM OUTSIDE EUROPE

HERE we may touch lightly on the racial problem of the Jewish people, although the Jews do not represent a strain of extra-European blood in Europe, but a section living among the European peoples, of a group of non-European origin. It is the Jews, indeed, who give an example of the importance of the physical and mental hereditary endowment, for their inherited characteristics are the source of that strangeness which they themselves feel within the racially different European peoples, and which these peoples feel with regard to the Jews -- a reciprocal strangeness that has always been attested from the time of the first appearance of the Jew in Europe.

There are a great many false ideas about the Jews. They are said, for instance, to belong to a 'Semitic race.' There is, however, no such race; there are only Semitic-speaking peoples, showing varying racial compositions (cp. above). The Jews, again, are said to be a race in themselves, 'the Jewish race.' This is just as mistaken; a casual glance at once shows men of greatly differing appearance among the Jews. Or again, the Jews are said to be a 'confessional community.' This is the most careless of errors, for there are Jews of all European faiths; and among those Jews in whom the ideal of a Jewish nation is most defined, the Zionists, there are many that do not accept the Mosaic dispensation. Benjamin Disraeli (Lord Beaconsfield), that English Prime Minister who was a High Churchman, was at the same time a Jew very full of pride of his race.

The Jews are a nation, and, like other nations, may belong to several religions; like other nations, too, they are made up of several races. The two races which are, so to say, the foundation of the Jewish nation are, as was said above, the Hither Asiatic and the Oriental. Besides these there are lesser strains of the Hamitic, Nordic, Inner Asiatic, and Negro races, and heavier strains of the Mediterranean and the East Baltic. This is explained from the racial history of the Jewish nation, which I have given in the appendix to the Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes, where also the appropriate illustrations will be found.

Fig. 164

Fig. 165

Fig. 166

Jews from the time of Jehu (840 B.C.). After an Assyrian representation; Hither Asiatic-Oriental

Within the Jewish nation two divisions are distinguished: the Southern Jews (Sephardim) and the Eastern Jews (Ashkenasim). The former are about one-tenth, the latter nine-tenths of the whole people, which numbers about fifteen millions. The Southern Jews make up the main Jewish population of Africa, the Balkans, Italy, Spain, and Portugal, and part of this population in France, Holland, and England. They show a mixture of Oriental, Hither Asiatic, Mediterranean, Hamitic, Nordic, and Negro, the Oriental predominating. The Eastern Jews make up the Jewish population of Russia, Poland, Galicia, Austria, and Germany; probably the greater part of that of North America; and part of that of Western Europe. They show a mixture of Hither Asiatic, Oriental, East Baltic, Inner Asiatic, Nordic, Hamitic, and Negro, the Hither Asiatic predominating to a certain extent.

In both branches, however, of the Jewish nation selective processes have been at work in the same direction to narrow down, as it were, the range of variations which otherwise would be possible from such a mixture of races. The result is that in the Jewish people as a whole there are always static and psychological characteristics recurring, and with such uniformity for the great body of Jews in every land, that it is easy for the impression of a 'Jewish race' to be formed. The Jews are (or at least were, down to the time of the so-called Jewish emancipation), through seclusion and inbreeding on a definite selective principle, on the way gradually to become a race, a 'secondary race' (as we might call it), the possibility of whose formation is discussed in Chapter V.

Hither Asiatic or Predominantly Hither Asiatic


Fig. 167 – Jew from Germany; Moses Mendelssohn, philosopher	Fig. 168 – Jew from Austria

Fig. 169 – Jew from Germany	Fig. 170 – Jew from France; Saint-Saëns, composer

Fig. 171 – Jew from Russia; Leviné, Communist leader	Fig. 172 – Jewess from France; Wife of the Composer, Meyerbeer; Oriental Race


Fig 172a – Jew from England; Hither Asiatic	Fig 172b – Jew from England; Predominantly Hither Asiatic

Fig. 173 – Jew from Germany; Predominantly Oriental	Fig. 174 – Jew from France; L. Gambetta, politician; Oriental-Hither Asiatic

Fig. 175 – Jew from Germany; Ferdinand Lasalle, Socialist leader; predominantly Hither Asiatic with Nordic Strain? Texture of hair Negro?	Fig. 176 – Jew from Germany; E. v. Simon; First President of Reichstag; Hither Asiatic-Nordic

The racial phenomena within the Jewish people were considered in detail in the appendix to the Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes, and cannot here be further discussed. For the examination of the Jewish question from the standpoint of ethnological and racial science we must likewise refer to the same work.

It is only from this standpoint that the Jewish problem can be solved. 'Ethnology must render an account to itself of all the influences, cultural and spiritual, issuing from the Jewish element that have been at work on the evolution of Europe, and are always at work on it with the most powerful instruments: finance, banking, literature, the press, and widespread organizations.'⁸ It is not the economic preponderance of the Jews which in itself has been the cause of the Jewish problem, and made it a burning one to-day. The influence of the Jewish spirit, and influence won through economic predominance, brings with it the very greatest danger for the life of the European peoples and of the North American people alike. 'For what is here at stake is the unhindered development of the bearers of the highest culture of mankind, who, if the process of amalgamation with these emissaries of the East goes further, run the risk in mind and body of wandering off those paths which their own genius has marked out for them.'⁹


Fig. 177 – Jew from Germany; Ludwig Börne, writer; Oriental-Hither Asiatic	Fig. I78 – Jew from England; Musician; Predominantly Hither Asiatic, with light Inner Asiatic Strain?

A worthy and evident solution of the Jewish question lies in that separation of the Jews from the Gentiles, that withdrawing of the Jews from the Gentile nations which Zionism seeks to bring about. Within the European peoples, whose racial compositions is quite other than that of the Jews, these latter have the effect (to quote the Jewish writer Buber) of a 'wedge driven by Asia into the European structure, a thing of ferment and disturbance.'¹⁰

This is seen to-day above all in North America, where the discussion of the Jewish question has been particularly lively since Ford's book, The International Jew: the World's Foremost Problem, made its way far and wide in a few years. In England, Belloc's book, The Jews (1922), has helped towards a renewed interest in the Jewish question; and so it is in Germany with Scheffer's Der Siegeszug des Leihkapitals, a work important from the standpoint both of racial and of economic science.

RACIAL STRAINS FROM OUTSIDE EUROPE

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IN the second chapter we dealt only with those bodily characteristics which show themselves especially clearly in the outward appearance, that is to say, with some only of the outwardly visible hereditary bodily attributes. Besides other visible characteristics, therefore, hereditary racial characteristics within the body were also left undealt with; these last we are still unable to consider even to-day, for a beginning has hardly yet been made with them. Here, too, we can only just refer to the peculiarities of movement in the various races, and to racial blood analysis.^l

Besides those hereditary elements which can be recognized or at least surmised in the European population as coming from one of the European races, there are also characteristics that are not yet ascribed to any European race or to a racial strain from outside Europe, and are, perhaps, not true racial marks, or are marks which occur in several races: among such may be mentioned the epicanthus and the so-called Mongolian spot.

In the case of the Mongolian fold, where this is found at times in Europeans an Inner Asiatic (Mongolian) strain may be generally suspected; where there is very frizzly hair we may suspect a Negro strain.

In Eastern Europe, as, too, in Hungary and the Balkans, whither tribes of Asiatic origin have ever been penetrating, an Inner Asiatic strain can be seen, growing more and more evident as we go eastwards.

This strain is to be found, too (through Lappish blood), in northern Finland, Sweden, and Norway (cp. Figs. 144 and 145).

A Negro strain is found from olden times all over the Mediterranean area (Negroes in the Roman army, Negro slaves), especially in the shipping towns since the Crusades. Negroes were, and still are, the fashion as servants in the big towns. Marriages with Southern Europeans have brought Negro blood into Central Europe; Italian navvies, particularly, have often shown a more or less evident Negro strain. Into France Negro blood has made its way from the French territories in Africa. Portugal, owing to the former importation of slaves from Africa, shows a particularly well-marked Negro strain.² To-day it is first and foremost French policy that is intensifying the 'Black Peril' for the whole world by giving the Negro, through the granting of full civil rights and officer's rank, an influence whose full results we cannot yet see.³ For Germany the French domination involves the 'Black Shame,' whose results, too, cannot be foreseen -- the attacks by Africans on white women in the occupied territory. Distler in his book, Das deutsche Leid am Rhein. Anklagen gegen die Schandherrschaft des französischen Militarismus (1921), has to say that: 'It is beyond all doubt that the birth-rate of cross-breeds is steadily rising.'

A Malay strain, arising from the mixed unions which have been customary among the Dutch in their colonies since the seventeenth century, is to be seen unmistakably in the towns of Holland.


Fig. 144 - Yakut Woman; Inner Asiatic Race	Fig. 145 - Gilyak from the Chaivinsky Gulf. Inner Asiatic Race

Fig. 146 – Holland; Van Haanen, painter; Nordic with Malay strain	Fig. 147 - Dahomey Negro

Fig. 148 - Russia - Tartar; Inner Asiatic with East Baltic strain	Fig. 149 – Magyar (Szekler) Woman; predominantly Inner Asiatic

Figs. 150a, 150b. – Transylvania. Inner Asiatic-Dinaric, or Inner Asiatic-Hither Asiatic

From the Caucasus and Asia Minor there reaches as far as the Balkans a fairly strong strain of the Hither Asiatic race. This strain is recognizable, too, in Spain and southern Italy. In Spain and southern Italy, particularly in Sicily, there are slight Oriental racial strains. These two races are strongly represented in the mixed blood of the Jews. In the gipsies, too, they are both present.


Fig. 151 – Skull from Asia Minor; Hither Asiatic Race

Fig. 152- Imeretian from Kutais; Hither Asiatic Race	Fig. 153 – Armenian; Hither Asiatic Race	Fig. 153a – Von Heidenstam; Nordic-Hither Asiatic

The Hither Asiatic race must be considered as a branch of the Dinaric. Both have so many marks in common that there has been a tendency to look on them as a single human group. The Hither Asiatic race is of middling height, and thick-set; the head is short and rises straight up at the back; the face is narrow, with a very prominent nose, which sinks downward at the cartilage and has a fleshy lower end; the lips are rather full; the hair is brown or black, generally curly, often too, it would seem, frizzly; the eyes are brown; the skin is brownish. Both the body hair and the beard grow very strong. The eyebrows are thick, and often meet above the nose. Compared with the Dinaric race the chin is less prominent, and lies farther back; a line drawn from the upper lip to the chin is characteristic for the profile of the Hither Asiatic race. The line from the ear to the cheek-bones runs somewhat more downwards than in the other races here considered. If the expression of the Dinaric face may be called bold, that of the Hither Asiatic is cunning. In their mental qualities these two races, which have so great a bodily likeness, show a good deal of difference. In the Hither Asiatic man there is a striking gift for trade, more than ordinary powers of reading character and understanding human nature, and a tendency to deliberate cruelty, combined with musical and histrionic ability. 'Not so much an energetic spirit of enterprise as a watchful reserve, not so much a proud self-reliance as a crafty spirit of calculation is what speaks out from their eyes'; this is Stiehl's excellent picture of the Armenian prisoners of war of Hither Asiatic race.⁴ The Caucasus is the area where the Hither Asiatic race is most predominant. The original languages of this race are the Caucasian (Alarodic).


Fig. 154 – Arab from South Algeria (Sharply bent nose). According to Weninger C, 76.64; F, 98.52	Fig.155 – Assyrian; The nose is bent in the last third; Characteristic shape of the lips

Fig. 156 – Mummy Portrait from Egypt, Second Century AD. Characteristic shape of the lips.	Fig. 157 – Georgian; Hither Asiatic Strain

Fig. 158 – Arab Sheikh from Palmyra	Fig. 159 – Arab from the Algerian Sahara

The Oriental race, which is found as a slight strain in Southern Europe, is short to middling height, slender, long-headed, and narrow-faced. The nose is narrow, or curved in the lower third (Fig. 155), less often sharply curved in the upper third (Fig. 154), and not very prominent, being sometimes rather flat; now and again it has a somewhat deep-lying, though narrow, root (Fig. 158). The lips are slightly swollen, often, as it were, arched and pointed in a smile. The deep groove (sulcus mentalabialis) between the under lip and the chin often lies higher than in other races (Fig. 156); this gives a characteristic look to the face of the Oriental race. The under lip as a result sometimes leaves the impression of being slightly protruded, as it probably often is. The skin is rather fair; it often looks fairer than that of the Mediterranean race, but with a fairness which is pale, not rosy. The hair is dark brown or black, and usually curly. The eyes are very dark. They are often almond-shaped, that is to say, the inner corners are rounded, while the outer corners come more to a point, the opening between the lids rising slightly in the outward direction. The eyes often have a sunken look.

The Oriental race is probably akin to the Mediterranean. Its original home seems to have been Arabia in the Diluvial Age, when this was still a fertile area. The Arabian Bedouin still show the strongest Oriental strain. The Semitic tongues belonged originally to the Oriental race. Owing to tribes of Oriental race having spread these tongues far and wide, they are spoken to-day by many whose blood belongs to other races.


Fig. 160 - Russia; Lermontov, Poet, 1814-41. Oriental-Dinaric	Fig. 161 - Rumania – Oriental

Fig. 162 – Turk from Smyrna; Oriental with Hither Asiatic Strain	Fig. 163 – Netherlands; Van Dyck, Painter (Self-Portrait) Nordic with Oriental Strain

Oriental and Hither Asiatic blood has been spread from the East over the whole of South-eastern Europe, above all in the lands around the Black Sea and in the Balkans, and also wherever Islam has been carried, especially, therefore, in Spain. Through unions with Southern Europeans the blood of the Oriental and of the Hither Asiatic race has sometimes made its way, too, to Central and Northern Europe. The fact of there being a strain of these races in a Central or Northern European does not, then, always point to a Jewish connexion (cp. Fig. 163).

Over and above strains of blood from outside Europe, such as the foregoing, it may well be that occasionally characteristics of prehistoric European races will be traceable, when investigations are once begun in this direction. Possibly, for example, among criminals there is a somewhat greater frequency of characteristics of the Neanderthal race; so that, for example, a low retreating forehead, or underhung jaws, and a small brain-chamber in the skull would not always have to be interpreted as signs of degeneration only, but in many cases as characters inherited from this prehistoric race and sprinkled throughout the population; which characters might easily show themselves on the mental side in criminal tendencies.

In Scotland a strain of the palaeolithic Crô-magnon race has been suspected, as also in Norway in the Drontheim district,⁵ in Sweden in the Dalarna province, in Germany in Westphalia.⁶ I am inclined to believe in the probability of a strain of this race (with fair hair and skin, and light eyes?) for Westphalia, and an area from Westphalia to West Thuringia. The race we are speaking of is very tall -- tall and broad, not tall and slender; broad-faced and long-headed; by some it is held to be dark-haired and dark-eyed, others hold that it is fair. In Norway, and thence derivatively in Iceland⁷ -- as also it would seem in Scotland -- we have to do with a strain from a dark-haired, dark-eyed race; in Dalarna perhaps only with the results of a Nordic-East Baltic cross.

ENVIRONMENT, INHERITANCE, RACIAL MIXTURE

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NVIRONMENT, INHERITANCE, RACIAL MIXTURE

THE attempt has been made, especially in the nineteenth century, to explain racial characters by the environment: according to this theory one environment produces brachycephaly, another dolichocephaly; one produces light colouring, another dark; one produces tallness, another shortness. It came even to be supposed that an influence was exercised by men's activities, by their customs, by their calling, even by their food. These views were strengthened by a belief in the inheritance of acquired characters (Lamarckism), which research on heredity could not confirm. The leading investigators on heredity in our time, such as Morgan and his fellow-workers in North America, de Vries in Holland, Johansen in Denmark, Correns and Baur in Germany, have all expressed themselves against the possibility of an inheritance of acquired characters. This is true, too, for the mental qualities of man. 'When Johansen says that experimental research has so far not yielded a single example of acquired characters being inherited, this is also true in every way for the inheritance of psychic characters.'¹ But as a result the belief arose that racial differences are more or less unstable, meaningless phenomena, when set against the 'might of the environment.' It was believed that in the United States a homogeneous division of mankind was gradually growing up from the most heterogeneous species with a like bodily and mental constitution, through the influence of the environment, which brought about a gradual fusion of the most heterogeneous elements. This is the 'melting-pot theory' which the American investigators on race rightly scoff at to-day.

Research now shows how careful we must be in pre-supposing influences of the environment; it has been able to explain the variations found in different parts of a country or in different classes of a people by hereditary endowment, and changes in the physical and mental nature of a settled people, undisturbed by immigration from outside, by selection -- by the differences, that is, in the birth-rate in individual districts and social classes (selection by fertility) of a country.

Later on we shall have to deal rather more particularly with the phenomena of selection. Here we must say something about the question of race mixture, for on this question like-wise mistaken views are current. One hears it said that in the United States of North America there is gradually coming into being through the mingling of the races a homogeneous people, that will embody a compromise between all the existing racial qualities, a mixed race with characteristics distributed more or less evenly throughout the whole nation. Europe, too, it is said, through racial mixture is gradually becoming homogeneous -- and thus peaceful. All such views, however, on the rise of 'mixed races' are mistaken. A transmissible combination of the characteristics of two or more races can be brought about only on certain defined conditions, conditions which cannot any longer be realized in the national life of to-day. Even after the longest of periods no 'German race' will be born out of the races we see to-day in Germany, though this is sometimes assumed. In Europe, which has been the scene from prehistoric times of the wanderings of peoples of differing races, where a thoroughgoing mingling of the races has always been going on, a compromise between all their characters should long ago have taken place: a medium height, a medium shape of the skull, face, and nose, and medium colouring should all be fairly evenly distributed in every part, and no important mental differences ought any longer to be found as between districts or between individuals. Central Europe, at any rate, should show a uniform, thoroughly homogeneous type of mankind.

In the 'sixties of last century the Augustinian abbot Johann Mendel (1822-84) (whose name in religion was Gregor) was carrying on at Brünn investigations on heredity, and was thus led to discover a statistical fundamental law of inheritance. Since then such investigations have in a relatively short time reached an extraordinary pitch of development; and Eugen Fischer, using the Hottentot-European mixed people of the Rehoboth cross-breeds as his material, has been able to show that the laws of heredity already discovered apply to mankind.² It was found that, when two races are crossed, what results is not a 'mixed race,' but a highly varied pattern of the racial marks: the height of the one race combined in one man with the shape of the head of the other race; the colour of the skin, for example, of the Nordic race combined with the colour of the Alpine eye; the hair texture of a curly-headed dark race combined with the hair colouring of a fair race; while we find, besides, medium shapes and colouring. Then again we have men who seem to belong wholly to one or other of the component races, parents showing a different combination of characteristics from their children, and so forth.

The understanding of the processes of heredity is complicated by the fact that the members of any nation are mostly cross-breeds who come not from parents belonging to different races, each being, however, of pure race, but who come from parents who are themselves cross-breeds. A further difficulty for investigations on heredity and race lies in the fact that some characteristics will be 'recessive,' others 'dominant.' It can thus very well happen that in the outward appearance of a man of mixed race almost all the characteristics of one race, and these only, may be visible, while he may also inherit many dispositions of the other race, which dispositions have remained 'recessive.' Thus, for example, brown-eyed parents may have a blue-eyed child, as the light colouring of hair, skin, and of eyes is recessive; but purely blue-eyed parents will never have a brown-eyed child, for light colouring is never found to be dominant. From this it follows that the outward appearance of a man (his phenotype) gives a certain clue, by no means to be despised, to his racial membership, but not a complete proof. To have any understanding of his hereditary portrait (idiotype) we also need to take into consideration his forebears, his brothers and sisters, and his offspring. From the foregoing, we see, too, that in regard to the racial or health 'value' of a man we have to distinguish between his value or worth as an individual, and as a parent; and lastly that men who have the same phenotype -- that is, outward appearance -- may have a different idiotype -- that is, hereditary composite portrait, and vice versâ.

It is usually only the phenotype of a living creature that can be influenced by the environment, not the idiotype. (The importance of a poisonous stimulant like alcohol lies in the very fact that alcohol has a harmful effect on the idiotype.) Many of the traits which strike us in a man as marks of his nationality, or of a wider membership, are peculiarities of the phenotype, acquired in and for the individual life, and thus are not hereditary traits impressed on him by the speech, and by the movements and attitudes peculiar to the particular nationality or human group concerned. One sometimes hears the view that some people or other makes up a true-breeding human group through the influence of the environment, or as a special 'mixed race.' This is the same mistake in a higher degree as the confusion of nation or people with race (cp. Chapter One).

If two races are crossed, a 'mixed race,' breeding true, will result only under special conditions. 'New races can never be born through crossing alone. Crossing can only give rise to new combinations; and the old characteristics do not disappear through crossing only. The disappearance of the old and the making of something really new can only be brought about by selection. The new combinations, therefore, can be so selected and sifted that all those with certain qualities disappear, while those left show certain new combinations. A new race has now come into being as a result of a mixture; the real factors at work were selection and rejection.'³ The social group which is to keep to the same direction of selection must also be allowed to live for long periods in isolation. It is by a direction of selection continuously maintained in isolation that the rise of races in prehistoric times must be explained; and often human groups, breeding true, that is, races, must have been formed, too, from the mingling of two or more earlier races through selection in a determinate enclosed environment. In the racial mixture of the Jews, too, I am inclined to see another example of selective processes which have produced a considerable degree of uniformity in a group of mixed elements (cp. Chapter Four). Among the European peoples, however, the mingling of races which has been going on since Neolithic times has only had the result of producing that variegated mixture we spoke of above; sometimes, however, leading to cases of so-called catalysis or breaking down, where in a child characteristics from the hereditary endowment of his racially mixed parents meet together again in a determinate racial structure.⁴

THE PRESENT DAY FROM THE RACIAL POINT OF VIEW

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THE PRESENT DAY FROM THE RACIAL POINT OF VIEW

THE PRESENT DAY FROM THE RACIAL POINT OF VIEW

WITH the nineteenth century there grew up all over Europe, in some countries faster than in others, the Industrial Age, which made a change in every aspect of the conditions of life of the peoples. The great towns, the centres of the unrestrained race mixture, grew fast; the expanding industries could offer increasing wages to ever more workers; but the workers whom industry could make use of, and did attract, were not those of the age, now ending, of craftsmen. In this latter it was the more skilful man producing on a small scale who best throve and found it possible to found a numerous family, while the less capable man in competition with the many individual workers would often not find himself in a position to found a family. The Industrial Age now opened the way for men of even decidedly inferior hereditary capacity to thrive. Large scale industry found a use, above all, for men to whom the proud individuality of the Nordic was foreign, for men to whom mass-life, life as one of a herd, was not spiritually repugnant, or was even congenial. It was Alpine and East Baltic men who now found a better opening than before in central Europe; in England it was the Mediterranean lower class. On the other hand, the Nordic race 'cannot properly adapt itself to the demands made upon it by industrialism. It desires a freer, less constrained life; it lacks the endurance necessary for carrying on a uniform kind of labour.'¹ It is therefore also probable that in a people which still has a fair amount of Nordic blood there is a greater danger of upheaval, the more Nordic blood there still is among the working masses in the great industries, and the more individual Nordic men of the working classes, owing to their capabilities, find themselves in a wider, more executive sphere of activity. The Nordic head of a miner of Meunier may well be the symbol of such men (Fig. 303).

Always, where the hindrances are not too great, the average higher gifts of the more Nordic men lead them into the upper classes, and so along the road of a less numerous offspring. It has been proved that the higher classes, who on the average have more Nordic blood than the lower, show the lowest rate of increase. It is just the families with the best hereditary equipment that are going fastest throughout the West towards extinction, so that, if the present trend of selection is still followed, there can be only the one result of a speedy retrogression in the capacities of the Western nations. In England, Pearson has already pointed out this retrogression. In Germany, Grotjahn, the social eugenist, who belongs to the Social-democratic party (and therefore would not favour anything which would increase the importance of the upper classes), has thus described the position: 'Moreover the state of things now existing, whereby the numbers of the upper classes are kept up not so much by their own increase as by the rise of individuals out of the lower classes, must in course of time unfailingly lead to the nation being utterly impoverished in its capable, gifted, and strong-willed elements.'²

Fig. 303 - Head of a miner of Meunier; Nordic

Thus, if no change comes about, that 'Fall of the West' must be the result which was first pointed to by Count Gobineau. 'The steady flow of Nordic elements into the prosperous and cultured classes brings down their birth-rate below what is needed to keep up the numbers. For some time yet the flow of Nordic blood can go on from out of the population of the countryside and the lower classes, but gradually this blood must run dry; for wars, too, mainly destroy the Nordic elements. The nation affected sinks down slowly from its heights.'³ To-day (unlike the Middle Ages) the peoples of Germanic speech make up their numbers through a stream of population that rises from the lower to the upper classes, and their relatively most Nordic districts receive a gradual immigration from the south. Both these movements have now reached the lands which are the very heart of the Nordic race; in Sweden, too, the districts with the strongest strain of Nordic race have the lowest birth-rate.⁴ The marriage-rate (which in Sweden is the lowest in Europe) is very probably also much smaller there in the upper, most Nordic classes than in the lowest classes. The birth-rate in Europe decreases as we go from east to west, and from south to north -- that is to say, inversely to the proportion of Nordic race in the European population. In the Western nations its decrease is greater, the higher the social class. In England in 1913, taking each 1000 persons of the highest class, and of the upper middle class -- that is to say, of the section of the nation which is richest in Nordic blood -- it was calculated that the number of children was 119, while the number for the rest of the middle class was 132, for skilled craftsmen 153, and for unskilled workmen 213. The proportions are the same in all Western nations.

Up till now the importance of the birth-rate in the several classes of a people for its rise and its fall have been far too little considered. Siemens⁵ gives a simple example which is well calculated to change many of the views on national life, and suggest sound ones. It is as follows:

'If the proportion between the average number of children of two races A and B is 3:4, then the numbers of the two races which are assumed to have been originally in the proportion of 1:1 (that is, equal), become after one single generation in the proportion to one another of 3:4 (or expressed in percentages 43:57); after two generations the proportion is 9:16 (in percentages, 35:64); after three generations or barely a hundred years, the percentage proportion is 30:70; and after three hundred years, if conditions remain the same, the race A, from being the half of a population, will have sunk to 7 per cent., a proportion which will be outwardly hardly noticeable.'

The Industrial Age, however, has had a far-reaching influence not only on the class structure of the nations, but also on their eugenic conditions. In the above example, instead of 'Race A' we can put the section of the people which has an inheritance of health and moral excellence, and instead of 'Race B' the section with an inheritance of ill-health and moral weakness; this will give a picture of the road along which the West is going to its 'fall.' Denordization and degeneration are the marks of every 'fall' of a people with Nordic leadership. The problems of degeneration can here only be lightly touched upon; they belong to the domain of eugenics or racial hygiene. The nineteenth century witnessed the grievous 'sins of industry against race and the health of the people' which Lundborg⁶ has searchingly described, and which here will only be shown in outline by means of a figure (Fig. 304).

Fig. 304 - Attempt to illustrate a theory as to the increase and the degeneration of a people which is being industrialized, and does not protect itself by eugenic measures.

1 - 4 Successive periods of time

I Governing class

II Middle Class and peasantry

III Working class

IV Lowest class without any real occupation. The small lines denote the inferior hereditary qualities

The heavy increase in inferior hereditary qualities brought in by the nineteenth century should have been met by a correspondingly active interest among the nations in the problems of eugenics, an interest which would have led to the legal measures which have to-day been adopted by the United States. But the legislation of the nineteenth century, however well meant it may have been, helped on degeneration and denordization among the Western nations by obeying the spirit of 'humanity.' It was from this same spirit that Goethe had feared for a lowering of the capabilities of the peoples, for as a result of 'humanity,' in the end 'the world will be a huge hospital, and each one will be the other's humane sick-nurse.'⁷ A mistaken 'love of mankind' has to-day in the Western nations led to the point where 'philanthropy' and 'social measures' devote themselves most to those with inferior hereditary qualities: the weak, the unstable, the work-shy, the harlot, the tramp, the drunkard, the weakminded, even the criminal. In the case of nearly all institutions 'for the common good' it is the section with the higher hereditary qualities that pays for the others. This is seen over and over again in an aggravated form in the case of many 'social' institutions in the states of Europe. Great sums of money must continually be paid away by the hereditarily sound and capable section of the nations for the worthless and even the criminal section; and these sums in the end are made use of by the inferior section to reach a high birth-rate, whereas that section of the nation with the more valuable hereditary endowment puts a check on the number of its births, that it may find the sums demanded of it. It is well known that the descendants of a couple endowed with bad characteristics often cost the State millions for their care.⁸

It would be otherwise, indeed, with the nations of Europe, if the great sums always being paid out for the useless and for criminals could be applied towards raising the number of births among the capable. But the insight which in the United States has led to the sterilization of the mentally diseased and criminals has not yet made its way in Europe into the laws. European law-making to-day is generally no more than the attempt to be 'just' to the daily needs of the individual. The courage is lacking to look at the ruthless rules, the laws governing the life of the nations; responsibility for the future is wanting. European law-making bears the stamp of the woman's characteristic of looking with pity on every exception, on every individual drunkard and criminal, and of letting him 'be cared for,' where a man's mind, for the sake of bettering the whole in accordance with the law of life among the peoples, would deem the encouragement of inherited fitness to be its highest purpose. 'All laws are made by the old and by men. The young and women wish for the exception, the old for the rule' -- so Goethe has written. He would probably to-day, however, see the spirit of 'the young and of women' in European law-making, and that 'humanity,' too, of which he gave warning, and whose failure lies rooted in its 'absolute refusal to face inevitable facts, if such facts appear cruel.'⁹ Nietzsche's saying, 'That which falls must be pushed as well,' taken as the maxim for law-making, would for all its seeming cruelty bring about the best results for the nations. The 'sympathy' which has penetrated the laws of our time shows itself especially kind towards any accused whom the defence can call 'weighed down by heredity,' and so it brings about the ever wider diffusion of hereditary criminal tendencies. It has helped to create that 'criminal countenance of the present day' which Aschaffenburg (Das Verbrechen, etc., 1923) was forced to draw (cp., on the other hand, the Germanic laws).

The laws made in the United States of America are the result of preliminary work which makes them a model for the future; they show the measures which the State must take if it is not to allow State care to become a kind of help to propagation.¹⁰ It is a question of finding the means whereby the hereditary part of any ill-endowed individual can be separated out of the inheritance of the people without his being in any way harmed in his own individual life. The distinction must be drawn between the 'right to live' and the 'right to give life.'¹¹ Of a great many hereditary tendencies to illness and moral inferiority what Grotjahn says of tuberculosis is true: 'Only when we have cut off consumptives from the power of handing on their bodily inferiority through the action of heredity, can we allow ourselves to enjoin on them measures of a medical, prudential, hygienic, and economic kind without having the fear that we are thereby bringing down more harm than good on the community.'¹²


Fig. 305 - Statesman	Fig. 306 - Professor at Yale University, Connecticut

Fig. 307 - Professor at Stanford University, California	Fig. 308 - Professor and chancellor of Stanford University, California

That social care which puts the man with an inferior hereditary equipment in a position to beget children has led to the existence in all European nations of something very like the conditions described for Germany by Kuhn (in his book, well worth reading, Von deutschen Ahnen und Enkeln, 1924): 'According to a very careful estimate, we have now about 240,000 mentally afflicted, 20,000 epileptics, 170,000 dipsomaniacs, 36,000 blind, 18,000 deaf-mutes, 156,000 cripples, and 300,000 seriously consumptive citizens, of whom a great part owe their affliction to an inherited constitution. To these must be added the mentally unsound of every kind, and the army of criminals.' American eugenism has, therefore, gone over to the side of a legally controlled sterilization of the unfit and the criminal, and it has been found that the persons concerned welcome it (it involves no loss of sensation). After the favourable experience in North America of sterilization, a committee there has drawn up a programme for the extension of eugenetic laws, according to which about a tenth of those living at any time are to be made sterile.¹³ This would be bound in the end to lead to an extraordinary rise in the level of capacity of the North American people.


Fig. 309 - James Munroe (1758-1831,) President	Fig. 310 - Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), President

Fig. 311 - R.W. Emmerson (1803-82) Poet and Philosopher	Fig. 312 - Andrew Jackson (1767-1845), President

Fig. 313 - Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-64), Writer	Fig. 314 - Longfellow (1807-82) Poet

Although the feeling of responsibility towards the coming generations will for a long time yet not be awakened in Europe to the same degree as in the United States, it is yet a welcome sign that the understanding of the demands of eugenics (which alone can give the foundation for effective social work) has led in Sweden to the foundation of a State institute for eugenic research (Statens Institutet för Rasbiologi) -- the Swedish example has lately been followed by Soviet Russia -- and that the understanding of eugenics is growing in Germany, especially since the excellent Grundriss menschlichen Erblichkeitslehre of Baur-Fischer-Lenz has begun to have its effect. It is particularly significant for the future in Germany that, owing to the writings of the Social-democratic eugenist, Grotjahn (see above), democratic and Social-democratic circles, too, are now being won over to the idea of eugenics, against which formerly they at times harboured a certain suspicion. Thus the Swedish Labour paper, Arbetet, of 30th November 1925, writes: 'All the humanity of which our time is justly so proud, and which is the great ideal of democracy, leads to a lessening of the racial health, if it is not thought out clearly to its end. It is a false humanity which thinks of the individual at the cost of the race. Reverence for the sacredness of life must not lead to a sentimentalism that stunts it.'

It is all the more needful for the European States and their representatives to give heed to the demand made by eugenics, in that the Great War has brought incalculable losses on them through the contra-selection of the most capable. The pick of these stood for our years in the fight, and suffered heavy losses. 'Patroclus lies buried and Thersites comes back' (Schiller). The pick of the inefficient, of the 'worthless,' could meanwhile raise families. In Germany 2.7 per cent. of the population fell. Lenz thus describes the German losses:¹⁴ 'In the German Army about 10 million men were in the field; of them 19 per cent. fell (including those missing). We can get a picture of the losses in the various age-classes by comparing the numbers at each age for both sexes according to the 1919 census. For age 25-30 the number of men is 26 per cent. less than that of the women, while before theWar these numbers were almost exactly equal. Since, too, the mortality among women during the War was somewhat higher, we must conclude that out of the whole of this age-class, including the non-combatants, over 26 per cent. fell, and, therefore, of the first-line fighters in this class fully a third. Between ages 20-25 in 1919 the men were 21 per cent. fewer than the women; between ages 30-35 they were 18 per cent. fewer; taking all ages between 20-40 together, the men were 20 per cent. fewer than the women. Of all first-line fighters between 20-40, therefore, probably, over a quarter fell. Of the officers on the active list as many as 39.2 per cent. fell, of the younger ones over one-half. A like sacrifice of blood was made by the educated civilian class. Of the students and the gymnasiasts who went forth, a good half must have never come back; of those who went into the field in 1914, much more than a half. It is probably not too much to say that of that tenth of the young men of Germany which stood highest in mental capacity, most are no more.'

Such a toll of blood, which in some cases was yet heavier, utterly exhausted the peoples who had been fighting for four years. But -- and this is the important point for the purpose of this book -- in every European war, and so again in the Great War, it is the Nordic section in the warring nations that has suffered the heaviest losses. The Nordic man has the most warlike disposition, and is the first to rush into the fight. 'Before this he is already found in the army, as a result of his height, in a greater proportion than in the population as a whole. In the Guards and Household troops, who for well-known reasons suffer more heavily in most wars than their comrades, he is still more strongly represented. Most of all he is met with among the officers, whose losses, owing to their exposing themselves more, are on the average twice to thrice as heavy as those among the men. Frequent wars have, therefore, the tendency to lower the numbers of the Nordic type, and to coarsen it, whether through the survival of its own lower-grade members (such as are shown by all types owing to the great range of variation) or through admixture.'¹⁵ The relatively far heavier losses of the Nordic race are indicated for Germany by the portraits given in the Woche from 1914-8 of the officers and men decorated with the Iron Cross of the First Class. Many of those so decorated are already marked on the portrait as having fallen. So it was in England, where, too, the best Nordic figures were to be found in the periodicals which published during the War the portraits of fallen officers. Thus Grant relates, and adds: 'No nation, not even England, although richly endowed with a Nordic gentry, can stand the loss of so much good blood.'¹⁶

Of the nobility of the warring peoples there is a minority, the result of mixed marriages with Jewish women, which shows more of the blood of the races represented in the Jewish people than the lower and middle orders of those peoples. But a very great majority has always preserved a stronger predominance of Nordic blood than the average among the people as a whole. The heavy losses in the War of the nobility of the warring peoples have thus contributed greatly to the loss of Nordic elements. The judgment of an outsider, Stoddard,¹⁷ the American historian and anthropologist, who calls the Prussian nobility 'the most virile and capable aristocratic group on the European continent' -- this judgment may give an idea of the contra-selection which Germany suffered through the losses in war among this nobility, which sent out and lost especially many very young volunteers, that is, men who had not yet left any offspring to the German people. While Bavaria lost 4.7-5 per cent. of her men, the losses in the Bavarian nobility were 8.4 per cent.

The rush of the warlike-natured Nordic men into the army was naturally seen clearer in the United States, where service was voluntary. Osborn, in the introduction to Grant's book, writes stirringly of the Nordic pick of the American volunteers, and the French anthropologist, de Lapouge, emphasizes the Nordic look he observed on the arrival of American troops. The Great War was for all the nations drawn into it a loss of Nordic elements and a eugenic weakening which make the thoughtful man shudder, but which are being attentively followed by all peoples of the races outside Europe, who are eager for the dying out of the leader class in Europe, and foster this bond of a common aim.¹⁸

The deeply penetrating denordization of the Great War was followed in all the Western nations, including those who had not taken part in the War, by the denordization arising out of the ever-growing burden of taxation, which forces those very classes richest in Nordic blood to a further restriction on the number of children. Nordic blood (to use an expression of Grant's) is now being very truly taxed out of existence throughout the West. Grant speaks of 'the destruction of superior types -- by massacre, as in Russia, or by taxation, as in England.' The economic pressure on the middle class, which, too, was the beginning of the decay of Rome, hits the Nordic stream just as it is rising through this class, and keeps down its birth-rate. The character of the Nordic race makes any thought of State help impossible, such as de Lapouge has thought he detects in the Alpine race.¹⁹

It is only the awakening of a racial consciousness in predominantly Nordic men that can stay the dying out of the Nordic race. The question is: How are those of predominantly Nordic race to recover the higher birth-rate? This question must, if a new upward movement is to come about, become the foremost one in all the peoples that still have a measure of Nordic blood. Since France aims racially at a union with her African citizens, and politically at friendship with the Eastern Asiatics, particularly the Japanese, the Nordic ideal, which the French Count Gobineau, was the first to formulate and call into being, will probably find a home only among the peoples of Germanic speech. If the ruling classes in these peoples take to themselves the Nordic ideal as a common gift and possession, then there are grounds to hope for a new Nordicizing of the Germanic peoples.

The racial position of the United States is no less terrifying than Germany's or England's. If Ploetz is right when he supposes there to be now in North America only 30 per cent. of Nordic blood (though this estimate is, I think, too low), then the position there is even more terrifying. In 1888 the immigrants were as much as 72.6 per cent. from Northern and Western Europe; 1892 was that memorable year in the eyes of those Americans who have awakened to the importance of race which for the first time witnessed an immigration that as to nearly one-half came from eastern and southern Europe. In 1896 the south and east Europeans for the first time were in the majority among the immigrants. In 1901 the immigrants from northern Europe were only 23.7 per cent.; in 1907 those from eastern and southern Europe were 76.2 per cent. According to a further American calculation, the United States since 1900 have taken in as immigrants six million souls who eugenically must be called 'inferior' or 'very inferior.' Thus the North American people, too, are threatened with degeneration and denordization, and denordization is spreading wider in that the more Nordic sections show an alarmingly low birth-rate.²⁰ Grant thus describes the position: 'We Americans must realize that the altruistic ideals which have controlled our social development during the past century, and the maudlin sentimentalism that has made America "an asylum for the oppressed," are sweeping the nation towards a racial abyss.'²¹

It is the same factors as in Europe that are concerned in the low rate of increase of the Nordic section of North America. Fahlbeck, the Swedish investigator into heredity, has given four children to a marriage as the 'maintenance minimum' for a human group (according to Lenz, this is more exactly 3.6 children). In all the peoples of Germanic speech we find marriages with four children among the families richest in Nordic blood comparatively much rarer than among the families which are poor or poorest in this blood. In the families with hereditary qualities above the average higher earnings and a rise in the social scale is the rule. It is the Nordic class that has had the greatest share in that increase of wealth which the Industrial Age has brought the Western peoples and America. But a slight increase in wealth is enough at once to send the birth-rate down. The leader-like qualities of the Nordic race, its longing for spiritual values, are the cause of the late marriages in the Nordic class. It is this class which, through its very capacity and daring, so often uses itself up in the service of its country. The characteristic of this class which makes it choose callings which are respected, but associated with comparatively small earnings, is the cause, when taken together with the Nordic foresight, of small families. The need of 'keeping up its rank,' which characterizes and does so much harm to this class, is a hindrance to marriage, and expresses itself in the married state by a check on births. The burden of taxation falls, as already stated, heaviest on the more Nordic and the most Nordic classes; it is they who have to keep on contributing the greatest part of the money which is used in the 'care' of persons with a useless and criminal hereditary endowment, and in their propagation. And it is just in 'social' charitable activities that we surprisingly often find healthy young women, rich in Nordic blood, who yet, if possible, remain unmarried.

This position -- the danger of decay -- is recognized here and there in Germany, but, above all, in North America. Eugenic research is beginning to make its way into the conscience of reflective men, and the Nordic ideal is stirring into life.

A Nordic Ideal-A RESULT OF THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL VIEW OF HISTORY

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THE NORDIC IDEAL -- A RESULT OF THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL VIEW OF HISTORY

IF degeneration (that is, a heavy increase in inferior hereditary tendencies) and denordization (that is, disappearance of the Nordic blood) have brought the Asiatic and south European peoples of Indo-European speech to their decay and fall, and if degeneration and denordization now, in turn, threaten the decay and fall of the peoples of Germanic speech, then the task is clearly to be seen which must be taken in hand, if there is still enough power of judgment left: the advancement of the peoples of Germanic speech will be brought about through an increase of the valuable and healthy hereditary tendencies, and an increase of the Nordic blood. The works on general eugenics show how the valuable hereditary tendencies can be increased. Here, therefore, we will only deal with the question of the renewal of the Nordic element.

The French Count Arthur Gobineau (1816-82), was the first to point out in his work, Essai sur l'inégalité des races humaines (1853-5), the importance of the Nordic race for the life of the peoples. Count Gobineau, too, was the first to see that, through the mixture of the Nordic with other races, the way was being prepared for what to-day (with Spengler) is called the 'Fall of the West'. Gobineau's personality as investigator and poet ('all the conquering strength of this man') has been described by Schemann,¹ and it is, thanks to Schemann, through his foundation in 1894 of the Gobineau Society (to further Gobineau's ideas), and through his translation of the Essay on the Inequality of Human Races, which appeared 1898-1901, that Gobineau's name and the foundations he traced for the Nordic ideal have not fallen into forgetfulness.² The very great importance of Gobineau's work in the history of the culture of our day is shown by Schemann in his book, Gobineaus Rassenwerk (1910).

It is evident that Gobineau's work on race, which was carried out before investigations into race had reached any tangible results, is in many of its details no longer tenable to-day. The basic thought of this work, however, stands secure. From the standpoint of racial science we may express ourselves as to Gobineau's work in somewhat the same way as Eugen Fischer, the anthropologist: 'The racial ideal must and will force its way, if not quite in the form given it by Gobineau, at any rate from the wider point of view quite in his sense; he was the great forerunner


Fig. 315 - H.S. Chamberlain At the time of writing the Grundlagen	Fig. 316 - Count Gobineau; painting La Tour

The turn of the century, when Schemann's translation appeared, may be said to be the time from which onwards a certain interest in racial questions was aroused. About the same time, too, in 1899, appeared the work which for the first time brought the racial ideal, and particularly the Nordic ideal, into the consciousness of a very wide circle through the enthusiasm, and also the opposition, which it aroused: this work was The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century, by H. S. Chamberlain (born 1855), at that time an Englishman, now a German. On this work from the standpoint of racial science we may pass a judgment somewhat like that of Eugen Fischer: 'Undeterred by the weak foundations of many details, and recklessly changing even well-established conceptions to serve his purpose, he raises a bold structure of thought, which thus naturally offers a thousand points for attack, so that the real core of the matter escapes attack -- and it would stand against it.'⁴

Since the works of Gobineau and Chamberlain appeared, many investigators, in the realms of natural and social science, have devoted themselves eagerly to bringing light into racial questions, so that to-day not only the core of the theory both of Gobineau and of Chamberlain stands secure, but also much new territory has been won for an ideal of the Nordic race. A new standpoint in history, the 'racial historical standpoint,' is shaping itself.

The Nordic race ideal naturally meets with most attention among those peoples which to-day still have a strong strain of Nordic blood, of whom some are even still very predominantly Nordic -- that is, among the peoples of Germanic speech in Europe and North America. It is unlikely that Gobineau's thought will find a home among the peoples of Romance speech, even though the first scientific work from the racial historical standpoint, L'Aryen, son rôle social (which likewise appeared in 1899), has a Frenchman, Georges Vacher de Lapouge, for its author. Denordization has probably already gone too far in France also. Any great attention towards race questions is unlikely, too, among peoples of Slav speech.

But the result was bound to be that in all those peoples who came to know Gobineau's theory there were some persons who were deeply moved by them. Since the end of last century we can, as was said above, even speak of a growing interest in race questions, although we cannot yet speak of a spread of clear ideas. Following the terms used by Gobineau and Chamberlain, we come here and there upon more or less clear conceptions of the need for keeping the 'Germanic' blood pure, or (following Lapouge) of keeping the 'Aryan' blood pure.⁵ In this way the door is always left wide open to the confusion of race and people or of racial and linguistic membership, and a clear definition of aims is impossible. What was (and still is) lacking is a knowledge of the conception of 'race', and a knowledge of the races making up the Germanic peoples (that is, peoples speaking Germanic tongues) and the Indo-European peoples (that is, peoples speaking Indo-European tongues). There was (and still is) lacking a due consideration of the racial idiotype (hereditary formation) of the Nordic man, as the creator of the values which characterize the culture of the Indo-European ('Aryan') and the Germanic peoples. A racial anthropology of Europe could not be written in Gobineau's time. Many detailed investigations were still needed.⁶

But more was (and is still) wanting: Gobineau, like his contemporaries, had as yet no knowledge of the importance of selection for the life of peoples. The Nordic race may go under without having been mixed with other races, if it loses to other races in the competition of the birth-rate, if in the Nordic race the marriage rate is smaller, the marrying age higher, and the births fewer. Besides an insight into the 'unique importance of the Nordic race' (Lenz) there must be also a due knowledge of the laws of heredity and the phenomena of selection, and this knowledge is just beginning to have its deeper effect on some of the members of various nations.

Maupertius (1744, 1746) and Kant (1775, 1785, 1790) had been the first to point out the importance of selection for living beings. But the influence of the conception of selection only really begins to show itself after the foundations of modern biology were laid by Darwin's Origin of Species in 1859. The conception of selection was bound to have an effect on the view taken of the destiny of the peoples. Darwin's cousin, Francis Galton (1822-1911), the 'father of eugenics,' was the first to see this.⁷ He was the first to show that it is not environment but heredity which is the decisive factor for all living beings, and therefore for man too, and drew the outlines of a theory of eugenics in the knowledge that the improvement of a people is only possible by a sensible increase of the higher hereditary qualities. But it took nearly forty years for Galton's importance to be rightly understood and for his work to bear fruit.

Galton's views had as yet no scientific theory of heredity on which to build. This was created in its main outlines by Johann Mendel (1822-84), an Augustinian father in Brünn (in religion he was known as Gregor), whose life-work, after its recovery in 1900, had so deep an effect that research after research was undertaken, and to-day a wide-embracing science of heredity stands secure.

Through researches such as these Gobineau's teachings received a deeper meaning, and found fresh support from all these sources, from the sciences of heredity, eugenics, and race: the Nordic movement was born. It had to come into being in those countries where there was still enough Nordic blood running in the peoples to make a Nordic new birth possible. Thus in Germany societies have been founded aiming at the propagation of the Nordic ideal; thus societies of the same kind have been founded in the United States; and such societies would seem sometimes to go beyond these countries.

If the Nordic ideal in Germany has been active longer than in other countries, it would seem, owing to the splitting up of its followers into small groups, not to have found the same diffu-west European immigration, and to put a bar on the unwished-for immigration from south and east Europe. Immigration from Asia, and the immigration of undesirables in general, is forbidden. Grant himself has been chosen as vice-president of the Immigration Restriction League. It may be presumed that the Immigration Laws as now passed are only the first step to still more definite laws dealing with race and eugenics. In North America, especially, where there is the opportunity to examine the races and racial mixtures of Europe from the point of view of their civic worth, the importance of the Nordic race could not stay hidden. Leading statesmen have seen the importance of this race, and are proclaiming their knowledge.⁹ In North America a significant change is taking place in our own day: Europe as an area of emigration is no longer looked at in the light of its states or peoples, but in the light of its races. How Germany (or the pick of German emigrants) in this regard strikes America, may be seen from the fact that Germany, as a land of emigrants, is the most highly favoured of all European countries.

The peril of denordization (Finis Americae, Grant) has been recognized by many Americans since Grant's book appeared. Associations have been formed among the Nordic and predominantly Nordic Americans of Anglo-Saxon descent, such as 'The Nordic Guard,' and among Americans of German descent ('The Nordic Aryan Federation,' and so on). Some of the Nordic-minded North Americans seem to have joined together in co-operative unions, so as to make themselves gradually economically independent of big capital in non-Nordic hands. It would seem as though the Nordic-minded sections of North America had begun with great forethought and efficiency to take steps for the maintenance and increase of Nordic blood. A better insight, however, is perhaps still needed into the importance of the birth-rate for all such aims.

When it is remembered that the Nordic ideal in Germany had taken root here and there as long ago as the end of last century, we do not get, on the whole, from the Nordic strivings of this country that picture of unity and purpose which is shown by North America. However, we must not overlook the economically very straitened circumstances in which the German followers of the Nordic ideal, who in greatest part belong to the middle classes, find themselves -- circumstances which are always piling up hindrances to any forward striving. The hindrances, however, in the path of a Nordic movement lie partly in the German nature itself, in the splitting up into small exclusive groups each with its own 'standpoint,' which is found over and over again. This splitting up is the reason why the 'societies for the defence of the Nordic race' (Ploetz) in Germany can only be looked on as the beginning of an interest in race questions, and why we must agree with Ploetz when he speaks of¹⁰ these 'defensive societies' as being 'considerably poorer in membership and influence than those of the Jews'; indeed, we cannot yet speak of any 'influence' of the Nordic ideal.

These endeavours along Nordic lines, however, are not to be undervalued as tokens of an awakening attention to race questions. Those among the youth who have been gripped by the Nordic ideal have already done much to spread their views, even under the crushing conditions of to-day in Germany, and in spite of the lack of money. The beginnings may be humble, but the deep change is full of importance; 'Individualism,' so highly prized in the nineteenth century, and still loudly proclaimed by yesterday's generation, is coming to an end. The stress laid on each man's individuality, which up till yesterday was proclaimed with the resounding shout of 'Be thyself,' has become a matter of doubt, even of contempt, to a newer generation. It set me pondering, when, during the writing of this book, the statement of the aims of a 'Young Nordic Association' reached me, in which I find the following sentence: 'We wish to keep the thought always before us that, if our race is not to perish, it is a question not only of choosing a Nordic mate, but over and above this, of helping our race through our marriage to a victorious birth-rate.'

Up to the other day such a view of life would not have met with any understanding, and to yesterday's generation it must still seem beyond comprehension. The present age, indeed, was brought up amidst the ideas of the 'natural equality of all men,' and of the distinct individuality of each one of us ('Individualism,' 'Cultivation of personality'). When we look back to-day, we are astonished to see how long the biologically untenable theories of the Age of Enlightenment and of Rousseau (1712-78) could hold the field, and how, even to-day, they determine the attitude towards life of great masses of men, although men like Fichte and Carlyle had already gone beyond such views.¹¹ Although really discredited, the ideas of equality and individualism still hold the field, since they satisfy the impulses of an age of advanced degeneration and denordization, or at least hold out hopes of doing so, and yield a good profit to those exploiting this age. If, without giving any heed to the definitions of current political theories, we investigate quite empirically what is the prevailing idea among the Western peoples of the essential nature of a nation, we shall find that by a nation no more is generally understood than the sum of the now living citizens of a given State. We shall find, further, that the purpose of the State is generally held to be no more than the satisfaction of the daily needs of this sum of individuals, or else only of the sum of individuals who are banded together to make up a majority. The greatest possible amount of 'happiness' for individuals is to be won by majority decisions.¹²

Racial and eugenic insight brings a different idea of the true nature of a people. A people is then looked upon as a fellowship with a common destiny of the past, the living, and the coming generations -- a fellowship with one destiny, rooted in responsibility towards the nation's past, and looking towards its responsibility to the nation's future, to the coming generations. The generation living at any time within such a people is seen by the Nordic ideal as a fellowship of aims, which strives for an ever purer presentment of the Nordic nature in this people. It is thus only that the individual takes a directive share in the national life through his active responsibility. But in this fellowship of aims it is the predominantly Nordic men who have the heaviest duties: 'O, my brothers, I dedicate and appoint you to a new nobility: ye shall become my shapers and begetters, and sowers of the future' (Nietzsche, Also sprach Zarathustra).

The striving that can be seen among the youth for an 'organic' philosophy of life -- that is, a philosophy sprung from the people and the native land, bound up with the laws of life, and opposed to all 'individualism' -- must in the end bind this youth to the life of the homeland and of its people, just as the German felt himself bound in early times, to whom the clan tie was the very core of his life. It could be shown that the old German view of life was so in harmony with the laws of life that it was bound to increase the racial and eugenic qualities of the Germans, and that, with the disappearance of this view of life in the Middle Ages, both the race and the inheritance of health were bound to be endangered. And a Nordic movement will always seek models for its spiritual guidance in the old Germanic world, which was an unsullied expression of the Nordic nature.¹³

In the nations of Germanic speech the Nordic ideal still links always with popular traditions handed down from Germanic forbears whose Nordic appearance and nature is still within the knowledge of many. Unexplained beliefs, unconscious racial insight, are always showing themselves; this is seen in the fact that in Germany a tall, fair, blue-eyed person is felt to be a 'true German,' and in the fact that the public adoption offices in Germany are asked by childless couples wishing to adopt children far oftener for fair, blue-eyed, than for dark ones. The Nordic ideal as the conception of an aim has no difficulty in taking root within the peoples of Germanic speech, for in these peoples the attributes of the healthy, capable, and high-minded, and of the handsome man, are more or less consciously still summed up in the Nordic figure. Thus the Nordic ideal becomes an ideal of unity: that which is common to all the divisions of the German people -- although they may have strains of other races, and so differ from one another -- is the Nordic strain. What is common to northern and to southern England -- although the south may show a stronger Mediterranean strain -- is the Nordic strain. It is to be particularly noted that in the parts of the German-speaking area which are on the whole predominantly Dinaric, and in Austria, too, the Nordic ideal has taken root, and unions of predominantly Nordic men have been formed.

Thus a hope opens out for some union among the peoples of Germanic speech; what is common to these peoples, although they may show strains of various races, is the Nordic strain. If the Nordic ideal takes root within them, it must necessarily come to be an ideal of harmony and peace. Nothing could be a better foundation and bulwark of peace among the leading peoples than the awakening of the racial consciousness of the peoples of Germanic speech. During the Great War Grant had written¹⁴ that this was essentially a civil war, and had compared this war in its racially destructive effects to the Peloponnesian War between the two leading Hellenic tribes. The Nordic-minded men within the peoples of Germanic speech must strive after such an influence on the governments and public opinion, that a war which has so destroyed the stock of Nordic blood as the Great War has done shall never again be possible, nor a war in the future into which the nations are dragged in the way described by Morhardt, the former president of the French League for the Rights of Man, in his book, Les preuves (Paris, 1925). The Nordic ideal must widen out into the All-Nordic ideal; and in its objects and nature the All-Nordic ideal would necessarily be at the same time the ideal of the sacredness of peace among the peoples of Germanic speech.


Fig. 317 - Madison Grant; bronze bust by Chester Beach	Fig. 318 - Lothrop Stoddard,; C, 76; E, grey

In the war of to-day, and still more in that of to-morrow, there can no longer be any thought of a 'prize of victory' which could outweigh the contra-selection necessarily bound up with any war. For any one who has come to see this, it seems very doubtful whether even the most favourable political result of a contest deserves to be called a 'victory,' if the fruits of this 'victory' fall to those elements of a nation who, as a result of their hereditary qualities, have slipped through the meshes of the modern war-sieve. The real victims in any future war between the Great Powers, whether in the losing or in the 'winning' nation, are the hereditary classes standing out by their capacity in war and spirit of sacrifice. It will be one of the tasks of the followers of the Nordic ideal to bring this home to their peoples and governments.

If this prospect of a political influence wielded by the Nordic ideal seems to-day a very bold forecast, yet the task of bringing about a Nordic revival seems to arise very obviously from the history of the (Indo-European) peoples under Nordic leadership, as the most natural ideal to set against the 'decline' which to-day is also threatening the peoples of Germanic speech. There is no objection against the Nordic ideal¹⁵ which can be given any weight in the face of a situation which Eugen Fischer (in 1910) described as follows for the German people: 'To-day in Italy, Spain, and Portugal, the Germanic blood, the Nordic race, has already disappeared. Decline, in part insignificance, is the result. France is the next nation that will feel the truth of this; and then it will be our turn, without any doubt whatever, if things go on as they have gone and are going to-day.'¹⁶ And since this utterance there has been the dreadful contra-selection of the Great War.

This being the situation, the problem is how to put a stop to denordization, and how to find means to bring about a Nordic revival. How are Nordics and those partly Nordic to attain to earlier marriages and larger families? -- that is the question from the physical side of life. How is the spirit of responsibility, of efficiency, and of devotion to racial aims to be aroused in a world of selfishness, of degeneration, and of unbounded 'individualism'? -- that is the question from the spiritual side of life.

Once this question is seen by thoughtful men in the peoples of Germanic speech to be the one vital question for these peoples, then they will have to strive to implant in the predominantly Nordic people of all classes a spirit of racial responsibility, and to summon their whole nation to a community of aims. An age of unlimited racial mixture has left the men of the present day physically and mentally rudderless, and thus powerless for any clear decision. There is no longer any ideal of physical beauty and spiritual strength to make that bracing call on the living energies which fell to the lot of earlier times. If selection within a people cannot be directed towards an ideal, unconsciously or consciously pursued, then its power to raise to a higher level grows weaker and weaker, and it ends by changing its direction, turning its action towards the less creative races, and the inferior hereditary tendencies. Every people has had assigned to it a particular direction of development, its own special path of selective advance. The selective advance in the peoples of Germanic speech can have as its goal only the physical and spiritual picture presented by the Nordic race. In this sense the Nordic race is (to use Kant's expression) not given as a gift but as a task; and in this sense it was that, in speaking of 'the Nordic ideal among the Germans,' we necessarily spoke of the Nordic man as the model for the working of selection in the German people, and showed that no less a task is laid on the Nordic movement than the revival of a whole culture.

The question is not so much whether we men now living are more or less Nordic; but the question put to us is whether we have courage enough to make ready for future generations a world cleansing itself racially and eugenically. When any people of Indo-European speech has been denordicized, the process has always gone on for centuries; the will of Nordic-minded men must boldly span the centuries. Where selection is in question, it is many generations that must be taken into the reckoning, and the Nordic-minded men of the present can only expect one reward in their lifetime for their striving: the consciousness of their courage. Race theory and investigations on heredity call forth and give strength to a New Nobility: the youth, that is, with lofty aims in all ranks which, urged on like Faust, seeks to set its will towards a goal which calls to it from far beyond the individual life.¹⁷

Since within such a movement profit and gain is not to be looked for, it will always be the movement of a minority. But the spirit of any age has always been formed by minorities only, and so, too, the spirit of that age of the masses in which we live. The Nordic movement in the end seeks to determine the spirit of the age, and more than this spirit, from out of itself. If it did not securely hold this confident hope, there would be no meaning or purpose in any longer thinking the thoughts of Gobineau.

LIKE A GREEK GOD

2008-10-06T17:58:00.000+13:00

http://www.white-history.com/earlson/greekgod.htm

The Homeric poems describe the gods and goddesses as blond and blue-eyed; the word for bright hair is generally xanthós, into whose definition we will enter later. The Iliad describes Demeter as blonde, Aphrodite as golden-haired; it describes Athena as blue-eyed, and in fact refers to her fifty-seven times as Zeus’ blue-eyed daughter Athena. The world is glaukopis, which may be deduced from glaukos, meaning “bright, sparkling.” Pindar later described Athena as glaukopis and xantha, thereby clearly referring to her blue eyes and golden hair-colour.

After Homer, the description glaukopis becomes more seldom; however, it appears in isolated instances in Sophocles (Oedipus at Colonus, 705) and with Aristophanes (Thesmophoriazusae, 317). A conversation between a Greek and a Roman in the “Attic Nights” of the Roman writer Aulus Gellius, which compares colour meanings in the two languages, gives information about the colour references of the word glaukopis. There (II, 26, 18), glaucum is explained as meaning “grey-blue” and (II, 26, 19), the description glaukopis of the goddess Athena is explained as caesia, “the heavenly blue-eyed.” The same tradition, going back to Homer, of the blue-eyedness of Athena, is found in the saga of Byssa and Meropis: there, according to Boios (in Antoninus Liberalis, Collection of Metamorphoses, 15) Agron mocks the bright eyes of the goddess and praises his own dark eyes, and even with the Roman poet Hyginus, in the first century AD, Hera and Aphrodite mock the goddess Athena on account of her bright eyes: quod caesia erat. The word glaukopis was synonymous with glaukómmatos, “bright-eyed,” in contrast to melanómmatos, “dark-eyed.” Thus, in a commentary to a passage in the Iliad (IV, 147), the Achaean hero Menelaus was described by the commentator Peisander as “blond-haired, tall in stature and bright-eyed,” and thereby he used the word glaukómmatos (xanthokómes, mégas en glaukómmatos).

The Odyssey describes the god Rhadamanthys as blond, Aphrodite as golden-haired, Athena again and again as blue-eyed. Also, a name like Phoebus Apollo, deduced from phoibos, meaning “bright, shining, radiating,” may not only describe the nature of a Sun-god, but also the bright colour of skin, hair and eyes. The sea-god Poseidon, on the other hand, is described by the Odyssey (III, 6), as dark-haired and dark-eyed — a god of the pre-Hellenic Mediterranean world, whose defeat in battle by Athena in Attica, was represented on the gable of the Parthenon, on the Acropolis.

The figures of the human world are featured by the Homeric poems as being light-skinned and bright-eyed; thus Achilles, Menelaus and Meleager of the Iliad are described as blond, likewise Briseis and Agamede among the feminine figures; Helen is (III, 121) called “glittering.” The Odyssey in many places describes (Wilhelm Sieglin has recorded all these places), Menelaus as blond, it describes Penelope as blonde, Hermione as blonde and Aphrodite as golden-haired. The Iliad and Odyssey mention lily-armed goddesses and princesses, white-armed and silver-footed goddesses and mortal women.

Karl Jax has observed that among Homeric references to mortal girls and women, as also with the goddesses of the Homeric poems, dark hair is completely lacking, and Georg Finsler has stressed that the blond hair-colour in Homer is held to be beautiful and striking to such an extent, that the poet, in a moment of carelessness, even calls Odysseus blond, although he was generally accepted as dark-haired.

The description of the physical features of Odysseus, “the rich in cunning,” needs extensive examination, however. Odysseus diverges from the picture of the other Homeric heroes. By the Iliad (III, 193/94, 210/11) he is described as a “sitting giant,” appearing when seated near Agamemnon to be as tall as the latter, but in standing, to be shorter, but also broader, more thick-set in shoulders and chest. Thus Odysseus is not, like the other heroes, of tall, slim type. The Odyssey describes him (VI, 231) as light-skinned, and in another place (XIII, 397, 431), his head-hair is called blond (xanthós); however, it calls his beard dark (XVI, 176). According to hair-colour, Odysseus is also described by the Odyssey (VI, 231; XVI, 175; XXIII, 157/58) as hyákinthos, which previously was mostly translated as “brownish.” This “hyacinth colour” is, however, as Wilhelm Sieglin has shown, to be described as “reddish,” because the hyacinth was cultivated in Hellas as a sub-type with reddish blooms.

The sturdy, thick-set and dark-bearded Odysseus is not of the same type as the other Achaean heroes, either in respect to bodily or mental features. The distinction of his being “rich in cunning,” as if of a mixed man, was probably not made consciously by the poet; rather, must Odysseus be regarded as a saga figure of the pre-Hellenic world, who is equilibrated by the poet as far as possible to the image of the Achaean heroes. That he is a relic of a strange race, closest to a residue of the Hither-Asiatic type, remains distinguishable, however. Odysseus is a figure like Palamedes, a hero of the the Achaean saga of Troy who, however, only appeared with post-Homeric poets; half-Achaean and half-Levantine, rich in cunning and bold, part Hither-Asiatic, part Nordic, in every way different from the open-hearted noblemen such as Achilles, Patrocles, Agamemnon and Menelaus. Count Gobineau has already observed this weft of a strange type with Odysseus. He called him a Greek with Phoenician ancestors. Odysseus could be courageous when necessary, but preferred cunning; his language is malleable and seductive; lies do not terrify him, treachery does not dismay him, wiliness causes him no trouble. Eloquent, cunning, treacherous, dangerous, he resembles rather a pirate trader from Sidon or a senator from Carthage, while with his richness of thought, his imperturbability, his capacity of bridling his passions, with the occasional moderation and modesty, which in his case always proceeds from rational calculation, he is rather of Nordic type. V. Bérard was of the opinion that the Odyssey was indeed written by a Greek, but that its hero, Odysseus, was a Phoenician. Thus the mental and physical nature of this hero has again and again called forth conjecture about a pre-Hellenic origin, of which the latest is asserted by Wolfgang Aly. Aly holds Odysseus to be a saga figure from the pre-Hellenic world of the Cretans.

In the figure of Odysseus, “rich in cunning,” we see the after-effect of the East Mediterranean lands on the pre-Indo-Germanic world, the weft of Hither-Asiatic race, which was peculiar to this world, this weft being in every case stronger than the weft of the Western (Mediterranean) race; but with this figure the later Hellas also makes its appearance, a Hellas in which through mixture with the immigrating Indo-Germans, together with the descendants of the original population, and through additional wanderings from Asia Minor, the weft of Hither-Asiatic race reached out more and more and penetrated into the upper strata. In the later course of Greek history, more and more Nordic/Hither-Asiatic men like Odysseus must have appeared in the leading strata, becoming more Hither-Asiatic than Nordic, and at length filled with ever more men of preponderantly Hither-Asiatic race. Dishonesty, treachery, crafty calculation, corruptibility, and betrayal, more and more sully the pages of Hellenic history, indeed the history of all Hellenic tribes and settlements. In these characteristics, the Greek appears at length very far estranged from his original Indo-Germanic nature, from the high-aiming purity of all the early ages of the Indo-Germanic peoples, more estranged indeed than the Persian and Iranian of the Achaemenid Age, which in its faith, Mazdaism, had increased this very Indo-Germanic purity, the abhorrence of lies, to a proud confession of its nature. Men of Hither-Asiatic race have always been regarded as more cunning by men of other types. The Phoenicians, a folk with strong Hither-Asiatic weft, Homer (Iliad, XIV, 288) described as “treacherous men,” and “arch swindlers.” What was sensed to be Hither-Asiatic in Odysseus, the gift of feeling his way into mental life strange to him, the art of calculating the mental features of other men and other human groups, appears in the later Hellenic age not only in many traders travelling from place to place, but also in merchants of Greek language, in the graeculi paid and despised by the Romans, but permeates also the mode of thinking of many sophists and the opinions they taught. In his speech for Flaccus (17), and in letters to his brother Quintus, Marcus Tullius Cicero (Letters, 30, I, 16, 28; 53, II, 4) has described the mental make-up of many Hellenes of his age, which appeared to him, as to Western Europeans of later ages, to be of the nature of the “Levantine.”

Racial science evidence about the type of the Achaean and the Greek of the Homeric age, is represented by an assertion of the Iliad (XXII, 401); there, Hector the Trojan is described as dark-haired, in fact as non-Achaean, as stranger and foe. This distinction signifies, from a racial historical aspect, an error or an injustice, for the Trojans were themselves indeed relations of the Greeks, one of the pre-Hellenic, Indo-Germanic tribes from the region of the lower Danubian lands. The Trojan woman Briseis is called blonde by the Iliad (XIX, 283); here the contrast is forgotten. With Hector’s description, the poet has wished to stress a racial contrast. This struck Dio of Prusa, also called Dio Chrysostomos, a writer, who was born around 40 AD and lived until the beginning of the second century AD; he has (21, 16) drawn attention to the fact that the beauty of the Hellenes must have been other than that of the barbarians: the Hellenes were blond like Achilles or Patrocles, the barbarians dark, as the description of Hector shows.

The Boeotian peasant-poet Hesiod (around 700 BC), represents Homer’s gods, goddesses, heroes and heroines, as blond people. Athena he each time calls blue-eyed, thus in seven places, Dionysus he describes (Theogony, 947) as blond, likewise Ariadne and Ioleia (Fragment 110).

To the idea of beautiful and noble men belong, for the Hellenic outlook, not only features like light skin, bright hair and blue eyes, but also tall and slim stature. The frequent turn of phrase “beautiful and tall” (kalós kai mégas), which already appears many times with Homer, can be further traced in Hellenic literature from Herodotus to Lucian; it is used for men, women and children. In the description of Nausicaa by the Odyssey (VI, 151) it is shown that to beauty and noble birth, according to Hellenic views, belongs tall stature; the same idea is given by the description of Telemachus by Nestor in the Odyssey (IV, 38). Aristotle says, in his Nicomachean Ethics (IV, 7), that to beauty belongs a tall body; small bodies could admittedly be pretty and well-shaped, but not actually beautiful. The Western race is strikingly represented by these short-statured people of a pretty type. For Nordic sensitivity, the nature of the body and mind of the Western race does not suffice for actual “beauty,” because the idea of a beautiful person demands a certain gravity of soul, a greatness of soul, which was described as megalópsychía by the Hellenes, as magnanimitas by the Romans, or as the hôchgemüete of the German Middle Ages. The Western or Atlanto-Mediterranean racial soul is too light in gravity for Nordic feeling, too sparse in content, for the bodily features to be felt to be “beautiful.”

The Iliad not only allows it to be recognised by which bodily characteristics the Hellene of the early age was distinguished; it also shows in two examples, how the Greeks of the Homeric age viewed ugly men of the lower strata, just as later plastic art allows the recognition of what features the free Greek ascribed to the unfree, to the slaves of native or foreign origin. The Iliad calls two men curly-haired: Eurybates, the herald of Odysseus, a man with rounded shoulders, and Thersites, the “immeasurable gossip,” the “first demagogue in Hellas,” as he was also called. Both men belong to the lower strata, and thus are descendants of the pre-Hellenic population, of the Indo-Germanised tribes. Thersites is bow-legged and limps; his head, which has begun to go bald, is of a pointed form: “pointed his head; sewn on the crown with thinnish wool” (Iliad, II, 219). It is striking that a form of head is mentioned here, which differs from that usual to the upper strata. With this “pointed” (phoxós) head, is meant either the sickly form of the so-called “tower-skull” (Turmschädel), or the head form of the Hither-Asiatic race, which with many men of this race may be described as “pointed.” Thersites was also conceived by plastic art as a man of Hither-Asiatic race, with pointed head and projecting nose. On a cup from Attica of the time around 450 BC, the fable poet Aesop (sixth century BC), who probably belonged to the slave caste, is also shown with Hither-Asiatic features.

In his Philoctetes (440 ff), Sophocles has interpreted Thersites completely according to Homeric tradition, in such a way that one would most of all think of the bodily and spiritual features of the Hither-Asiatic race. This race seems often to have provided folk seducers and demagogues, for which its own capacity of feeling its way into foreign mental life served also the calculation of the human spirit, and the loquacious heightening in themselves of their own feelings and the wish-images of excited crowds. The description in the Iliad of the bodily and mental nature of Thersites the “immeasurable gossip,” corresponds to the repulsion felt by a Nordic ruling-caste to whom power belongs, towards a yelping under-man who dares to find fault with the noble power. Adolf Schulten has shown that Polybius (III, 33), has described the Tyrrhenians, originating from Asia Minor, as Thersitai. The name Thersites would thus have been applied to a man of Asian Minor origin, which Homer could still have perceived.

The evidence of Homeric poetry shows, at least, how in the age of the poets, one imagined gods and goddesses, heroes and heroines, to be. Thereby, it can be recognised from the Iliad and the Odyssey, that bodily features as well as mental characteristics were regarded as inherited and capable of being passed on, capable of cultivation in refined generations with careful choice of wife. These evidences from poetry show that human individuals and peoples see their divinities according to the image of their own bodily make-up, as Xenophanes (Fragment 14) and Aristotle (Politics, I, 2, 7) have remarked, and from the Iliad and Odyssey it can be seen, that at least the leading families of a people which saw its gods as light-skinned, blond and blue-eyed men of tall stature, must have corresponded completely to this facial image. Evidence from later centuries confirms that the Homeric poems have correctly distinguished the racial peculiarity of the Hellene of early history: this Greek was preponderantly of Nordic type.

Otto Reche has pointed out a Graecian word, which by itself alone represents an important assertion about the racial nature of the Greek: the word “iris” for the iris of the eyes. Iris means in fact a rainbow; a folk with dark, brown or black-brown eyes would never have compared the eye-colouring with a rainbow. Only bright eyes, the blue, blue-green or grey of the Nordic race, and greenish and brightly-mixed coloured eyes of people with Nordic weft, could explain a word like “iris.” This word could only have been chosen by a people of a preponderantly bright-eyed stock.

Sources

Hans F. K. Günther, Rassengeschichte des hellenischen und des römischen Volkes. Mit einem Anhang: Hellenische und römische Köpfe nordischer Rasse (Munich: J. F. Lehmanns Verlag, 1929) 18—22.

Hans F. K. Günther, Lebensgeschichte des hellenischen Volkes (Pähl: Verlag Hohe Warte, 1956) 98—104.

Hans F. K. Günther, “Like A Greek God.... Translated by Vivian Bird from Professor Hans F. K. Guenther’s Rassenkunde des Hellenischen Volkes.” Northern World VI, 1 (1961) 5—16.

THE WORKS OF HFK GÜNTHER

2008-10-06T17:57:00.000+13:00

THE WORKS OF HFK GÜNTHER

(1891-1968)

http://www.white-history.com/earlson/gunther.htm

Whites all Over Earth by Karl Earlson

2008-10-06T17:55:00.000+13:00

http://www.white-history.com/earlson/index.htm

Pigmentation of the Early Roman Emperors
by
Karl Earlson

In the table given below, I have compiled all of the known data concerning the pigmentation of the early Roman Emperors. This list begins with Augustus (27 BC-AD 14), the first Emperor, and ends with Commodus (AD 180-192), the last ruler of the Antonine dynasty. It proved convenient to end the list at this particular point, because information about Imperial hair and eye colour becomes much more scanty, after the reign of Commodus. Also, most of the Emperors who succeeded Commodus, were not of purely Roman ancestry. Therefore, their colouring would not furnish us with any worthwhile discoveries, in relation to the appearance of the Roman-Patrician ruling class. Here then, are the results of my investigations:

Emperor	Reign	Hair Colour	Source	Eye Colour	Source
Augustus	27 BC-AD 14	"blond-haired" (subflavum)	Suetonius, 79	"grey-eyed" (glauci)	Pliny, XI, 143
Tiberius	AD 14-37	—	—	"grey/blue-eyed" (caesii)	Pliny, XI, 142
Caligula	AD 37-41	"golden-bearded" (aurea barba)	Suetonius, 52; cf. Sieglin (1935) 105	—	—
Claudius	AD 41-54	"grey/white-haired" (canitieque)	Suetonius, 30	"grey-eyed" (γλαυκόφθαλμος)	Malalas, X, 246
Nero	AD 54-68	"blond-haired" (subflavo)	Suetonius, 51	"grey/blue-eyed" (caesis)	Suetonius, 51
Galba	AD 68-69	"grey/white-haired" (μιξοπόλιος)	Malalas, X, 258	"blue-eyed" (caeruleis)	Suetonius, 21
Otho	AD 69	—	—	—	—
Vitellius	AD 69	"redheaded" (πυρράκης)	Malalas, X, 259; cf. Sieglin (1935) 110	"grey-eyed" (γλαυκός)	Malalas, X, 259
Vespasian	AD 69-79	"grey/white-haired" (πολιός)	Malalas, X, 259	"wine-coloured eyes" (οινοπαης τους οφθαλμούς)	Malalas, X, 259
Titus	AD 79-81	"blond-haired"	Sieglin (1935) 109	—	—
Domitian	AD 81-96	"blond-haired" (ξανθός)	Malalas, X, 262	"grey-eyed" (γλαυκός)	Malalas, X, 262
Nerva	AD 96-98	"grey-haired"	Day (2001) 106	—	—
Trajan	AD 98-117	"golden-haired" (caesaries)	Sieglin (1935) 109	—	—
Hadrian	AD 117-138	"dark-haired" (κυανοχαιτα)	Sieglin (1935) 112	"grey-eyed" (γλαυκόφθαλμος)	Malalas, XI, 277
Antoninus Pius	AD 138-161	"grey/white-haired" (πολιός)	Malalas, XI, 280	"wine-coloured eyes" (οινοπαης τους οφθαλμούς)	Malalas, XI, 280
Marcus Aurelius	AD 161-180	—	—	—	—
Lucius Verus	AD 161-169	"blond-haired" (flaventium)	Sieglin (1935) 110	—	—
Commodus	AD 180-192	"blond-haired" (ουλόξανθος)	Malalas, XII, 283; cf. Sieglin (1935) 106	"grey-eyed" (υπόγλαυκος)	Malalas, XII, 283

As can clearly be seen from this, there was a predominance of fair characteristics, amongst the Roman ruling class.

Of the 18 Emperors from Augustus to Commodus: 9 had blond or red hair; 5 had grey or white hair; 3 had no recorded hair colour, and just 1 (Hadrian), was referred to as dark-haired.

Of the 18 Emperors from Augustus to Commodus: 9 had blue or grey eyes; 2 had "wine-coloured eyes" (whatever that may mean), and 7 had no recorded eye colour.

Although several of the Emperors were white/grey-haired old men, we still possess information which depicts a few of them as light-eyed. If records had been made during their youth, it is likely that they would have been called fair-haired as well. Of the 9 Emperors who had fair hair, 5 are listed as also having light eyes, whilst the remaining 4 have no noted eye colour. Remarkably, only Hadrian is called dark-haired, but even then, he was still described as being light-eyed. Strangely enough, for whatever reason, we possess absolutely no description at all of the "philosopher Emperor" Marcus Aurelius.

The precise meaning of "wine-coloured eyes" remains troublesome, and no completely satisfactory explanation of this term has ever been offered. Some scholars have suggested that it may mean "warm brown eyes," but this is mere supposition on their part. [Day (2001) 105.] For the time being, we will treat this term neutrally. Therefore, with this notable exception, there seem to be no references to dark eyes.

It is surprising how detailed and complete our records are concerning these facts, but there are some important lacunae in our knowledge, and we may offer some speculations as to why they occur. For instance, Tiberius' hair colour does not appear to have been recorded. This may be due to the fact that he was largely bald by the time he became Emperor. [Scarre (1995) 28.] Similarly, Otho was fond of depilating himself, and often wore a wig, as Suetonius affirms. [Scarre (1995) 61.] Also, his reign was relatively brief, and thus there may not have been sufficient time for a record of his eye colour to be made.

It is interesting that we possess more data about hair colour, than eye colour. As Day has noted, accurate observations of eye colour are rather rare, because irises have smaller surface areas than head-hair and exposed skin, often making them less noticeable. [Day (2001) 54.]

The fact that the records are comparatively complete, totally undermines the notion that the Emperors were brunet, like the majority of Romans during the Imperial Age, or that their pigmentation went unrecorded, because it could simply be assumed that they were dark-complexioned, and thus akin to the masses.

All of this augments the findings of Wilhelm Sieglin, who compiled a list of 27 blond-haired Roman gods and goddesses, 10 blond Roman heroes and heroines, and 63 blond Roman historical figures, many of whom were Patricians. [Sieglin (1935) 136.] It also confirms the theories of Hans F. K. Günther, who argued that the frequent use by the Patricians, of names such as Rufi, Flavi or Fulvi (indicating fair hair), and Caesulla or Ravilia (indicating light eyes), demonstrated their strongly Nordic racial affinities. [Günther (1957) 151-152.]

This work is merely a fraction of the information that exists on this subject. Many of the Roman Emperors were also tall, fair-complexioned, etc., but this study at least offers some highly revealing facts. In conclusion, this data demonstrates a marked tendency towards light features among the Roman Patricians.

Abbreviations

Malalas = John Malalas, Chronographia.

Pliny = Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia.

Suetonius = Suetonius, De Vita Caesarum: Divus Iulius, Divus Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Divus Claudius, Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Divus Vespasianus, Titus, Domitianus.

Bibliography

Day, J. V. (2001) Indo-European Origins (Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of Man).

Günther, H. F. K. (1957) Lebensgeschichte des römischen Volkes (Pähl: Verlag Hohe Warte).

Jeffreys, E., M. Jeffreys & R. Scott (1986) The Chronicle of John Malalas (Melbourne: Australian Association for Byzantine Studies).

Scarre, C. (1995) Chronicle of the Roman Emperors (London: Thames and Hudson).

Sieglin, W. (1935) Die blonden Haare der indogermanischen Völker des Altertums (Munich: J. F. Lehmanns Verlag).

Redheaded Pharaoh Ramesses II

2008-10-06T17:53:00.000+13:00

Redheaded Pharaoh Ramesses II
by
Karl Earlson

Pharaoh Ramesses II (of the 19th Dynasty), is generally considered to be the most powerful and influential King that ever reigned in Egypt. He is one of the few rulers who has earned the epithet "the Great". Subsequently, his racial origins are of extreme interest.

In 1975, the Egyptian government allowed the French to take Ramesses' mummy to Paris for conservation work. Numerous other tests were performed, to determine Ramesses' precise racial affinities, largely because the Senegalese scholar Cheikh Anta Diop, was claiming at the time that Ramesses was black. Once the work had been completed, the mummy was returned in a hermetically sealed casket, and it has remained largely hidden from public view ever since, concealed in the bowels of the Cairo Museum. The results of the study were published in a lavishly illustrated work, which was edited by L. Balout, C. Roubet and C. Desroches-Noblecourt, and was titled La Momie de Ramsès II: Contribution Scientifique à l'Égyptologie (1985).

Professor P. F. Ceccaldi, with a research team behind him, studied some hairs which were removed from the mummy's scalp. Ramesses II was 90 years-old when he died, and his hair had turned white. Ceccaldi determined that the reddish-yellow colour of the mummy's hair had been brought about by its being dyed with a dilute henna solution; it proved to be an example of the cosmetic attentions of the embalmers. However, traces of the hair's original colour (in youth), remain in the roots, even into advanced old age. Microscopic examinations proved that the hair roots contained traces of natural red pigments, and that therefore, during his youth, Ramesses II had been red-haired. It was concluded that these red pigments did not result from the hair somehow fading, or otherwise altering post-mortem, but did indeed represent Ramesses' natural hair colour. Ceccaldi also studied a cross-section of the hairs, and he determined from their oval shape, that Ramesses had been "cymotrich" (wavy-haired). Finally, he stated that such a combination of features showed that Ramesses had been a "leucoderm" (white-skinned person). [Balout, et al. (1985) 254-257.]

Balout and Roubet were under no illusions as to the significance of this discovery, and they concluded as follows:

"After having achieved this immense work, an important scientific conclusion remains to be drawn: the anthropological study and the microscopic analysis of hair, carried out by four laboratories: Judiciary Medecine (Professor Ceccaldi), Société L'Oréal, Atomic Energy Commission, and Institut Textile de France showed that Ramses II was a 'leucoderm', that is a fair-skinned man, near to the Prehistoric and Antiquity Mediterraneans, or briefly, of the Berber of Africa." [Balout, et al. (1985) 383.]

It is interesting to note the link to the North African Berbers: some Berber tribes, such as the Riffians of the Atlas Mountains, have incidences of blondism reaching almost 60%, and they have a percentage of red-haired people which is comparable to that of the Irish. [Coon & Hunt (1966) 116-117.]

These facts have not only anthropological interest however, but also great symbolic importance. In ancient Egypt, the god Seth was said to have been red-haired, and redheads were claimed to have worshipped the god devoutly. [Wainwright (1938) 31, 33, 53.] In the Ramesses study cited above, the Egyptologist Desroches-Noblecourt wrote an essay, in which she discussed the importance of Ramesses' rufous condition. She noted that the Ramessides (the family of Ramesses II), were devoted to Seth, with several bearing the name Seti, which means "beloved of Seth". She concluded that the Ramessides believed themselves to be divine descendants of Seth, with their red hair as proof of their lineage; they may even have used this peculiar physical feature to propel themselves out of obscurity, and onto the throne of the Pharaohs. Desroches-Noblecourt also speculated that Ramesses II may well have been descended from a long line of redheads. [Balout, et al. (1985) 388-391.]

Her speculations have been proved correct: Dr. Joann Fletcher, a consultant to the British Bioanthropology Foundation, has proved that Seti I (the father of Ramesses II), had red hair. [Parks (2000).] It has also been demonstrated that the mummy of Pharaoh Siptah (a great-grandson of Ramesses II), has red hair. [Partridge (1994) 169.]

We may also note the anthropological description of Ramesses' mummy, which was written by the Biblical historian Archibald Sayce:

"The Nineteenth Dynasty to which Ramses II, the oppressor of the Israelites, belonged, is distinguished by its marked dolichocephalism of long-headedness. His mummy shows an index of 74, while the face is an oval with an index of 103. The nose is prominent, but leptorrhine and aquiline, and the jaws are orthognathous. The chin is broad, the neck long, like the fingers and nails. The great king seems to have had red hair." [Sayce (1925) 136.]

All of these features are characteristics of the Nordic race. [Günther (1927) 10-23.] Finally, we should note that Professor Raymond Dart declared that the Nordic race was the "Egyptian Pharaonic type". He then went on to state specifically, that the head of Ramesses II is "pelasgic ellipsoidal or Nordic" in type. [Dart (1939).]

Afrocentrism

It is the central contention of this study, that Ramesses II was not only White, but that he was a fair-skinned, fair-haired, racially Nordish individual. If it were truly possible to prove that Ramesses was indeed black, this particular point of view would have to be reconsidered.

The idea that the Ancient Egyptians in general (and their aristocracy in particular), were predominantly black-skinned, woolly-haired, essentially African people, was most vigorously promoted by the Senegalese scholar, Cheikh Anta Diop (1923-1986). He was the foremost proponent of a series of doctrines and beliefs that have subsequently become known as "Afrocentrism." [Howe (1998).] One of Diop's numerous claims, was that Ramesses II was Negroid, and that this "fact" could be proved easily. Thus, Diop remarked:

"the Egyptians were Blacks of the type of all the native people of tropical Africa. That is particularly true when it concerns Ramses II, his father Seti I and Thutmose III." [Diop (1987) 217.]

One of Diop's major contentions, was that Ramesses II had woolly hair. He believed that this point was proved by a famous granite portrait statue of Ramesses, which currently resides in the Egyptian Museum of Turin, Italy. In his book The African Origin of Civilization, Diop reproduced two photographs, one of the statue, the other of a Negroid Watusi, underneath which he placed the following remarks:

Pharaoh Ramses II (top), and a modern Watusi. The Watusi hair-do can be conceived only for woolly hair. The small circles on the Pharaoh's helmet represent frizzy hair (as noted by Denise Cappart in her article in Reflet du Monde, 1956).

[Diop (1974) 19.]

However, Ramesses' head is crowned not with woolly hair, but a helmet. Peter Clayton has noted, that in this depiction of the Pharaoh, Ramesses wears a distinctive crown. [Clayton (1995) 146.] Clayton has referred to this particular piece of head-wear as:

"the helmet-like khepresh, the so-called Blue or War Crown." [Clayton (1995) 118.]

Therefore, the spirals that are detectable on the statue, represent decoration on a helmet, not woolly hair. This point is further confirmed by the fact that in coloured depictions, the crown is painted blue, hence its name: the Blue Crown. [Geddes & Grosset (1997) 435.] It would never be this hue, if the paintings were meant to represent hair. It would appear that the distinctive Blue Crown was made from leather, and that it was invested with great ceremonial significance: it seems to have represented the Pharaoh's supremacy over the earthly realm. [Desroches-Noblecourt (1972) 128-132.] Equally, the uraeus (hooded cobra), which protrudes from the front of the crown, as well as the clearly delineated bands that mark the edges of the helmet, all reveal that the head-hair is covered. Exactly what the circles that cover the surface of the Blue Crown are supposed to represent, is debateable, but it has been suggested by F. D. P. Whicker, that they are meant to imitate the markings of a carapace (tortoise shell), this being the material from which, he believes, the original helmets were manufactured. [Whicker (1990).]

In addition to this, we should note the findings of the study that was performed upon the hair of Ramesses' mummy. It is possible to determine the race of an individual by taking a single hair from their head, and studying the structure of it. When observed in transverse section, the wavy scalp-hair of a Caucasoid is oval, or rather widely elliptic in shape, with the least diameter amounting to about 70% of the greatest. In contrast, the spiralled, woolly hair of a Negroid individual, is narrowly elliptical in shape, with the lesser axis of the ellipse being rather less than half the greater. [Baker (1974) 208, 296-297, 308.] The team of scholars that studied the hair of Ramesses II, under the direction of Professor Ceccaldi, noted that when seen in cross-section, the structure of the hair was oval in shape, and therefore concluded that Ramesses had been cymotrich (wavy-haired). [Balout, et al. (1985) 256.]

This clearly demonstrates that Ramesses did not have woolly hair, and consequently, that the Turin portrait statue does not prove that Ramesses was black. In terms of evidence evaluation, the results produced from a study of Ramesses' mortal remains, are of higher value than any amount of conclusions that have been drawn only from portraits. Therefore, Diop's claims are completely baseless.

Red-Haired Ramesses

We would perhaps do well to end with the conclusions of the research team that investigated Ramesses' hair:

"Ramses IId mummy's hair is confined to a temporo-occipital zone which corresponds to an advanced stage of baldness.
Hairs are slightly crimped and show an oval cross-section, the great axis of which lies between 60 and 70 µm: they are specific of «a cymotrich leucoderm».
The sample which was investigated comprised identical percentages of fully depigmented and pigmented hairs, the overall colour being a light fair red with some tendency towards yellow.
Although the microscope examination was able to show strong evidence of red pigments, no evidence of possible «fair» pigments was obtained: the latter might be present as a «diffuse» component which could be masked by a faint yellow dye (probably arising from dilute «Henne» or one of its derivatives)." [Balout, et al. (1985) 256.]

Bibliography

Baker, J. R. (1974) Race (London: Oxford University Press).

Balout, L., C. Roubet & C. Desroches-Noblecourt [eds.] (1985) La Momie de Ramsès II: Contribution Scientifique à l'Égyptologie (Paris: Éditions Recherche sur les Civilisations).

Clayton, P. A. (1995) Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt (London: Thames & Hudson).

Coon, C. S. & E. E. Hunt (1966) The Living Races of Man (London: Jonathan Cape).

Dart, R. A. (1939) "Population Fluctuation over 7,000 Years in Egypt." Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa, XXVII, 95-145.

Desroches-Noblecourt, C. [Claude, trans.] (1972) Tutankhamen: Life and Death of a Pharaoh (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books).

Diop, C. A. [M. Cook, trans.] (1974) The African Origin of Civilization: Myth or Reality? (Westport: Lawrence Hill).

Diop, C. A. (1987) "Civilization or Barbarism: An Authentic Anthropology." In Van Sertima & Williams (1987) 161-225.

Geddes & Grosset (1997) Ancient Egypt: Myth and History (New Lanark: Geddes & Grosset).

Günther, H. F. K. [G. C. Wheeler, trans.] (1927) The Racial Elements of European History (London: Methuen).

Howe, S. (1998) Afrocentrism: Mythical Pasts and Imagined Homes (London: Verso).

Parks, L. (2000) "Ancient Egyptians Wore Wigs." Egypt Revealed, May 29.

Partridge, R. B. (1994) Faces of Pharaohs: Royal Mummies and Coffins From Ancient Thebes (London: Rubicon Press).

Sayce, A. H. (1925) The Races of the Old Testament (London: Religious Tract Society).

Van Sertima, I. & L. Williams [eds.] (1987) Great African Thinkers, Volume I: Cheikh Anta Diop (New Brunswick: Transaction Books).

Wainwright, G. A. (1938) The Sky-Religion in Egypt: Its Antiquity and Effects (Cambridge: University Press).

Whicker, F. D. P. (1990) Egypt and the Mountains of the Moon (Braunton: Merlin Books).

Genghis Khan's Blue Eyes

2008-10-06T17:52:00.000+13:00

BY
Karl Earlson

GENGHIS KHAN

The Mongol leader Temujin (AD 1167-1227), better known by his title Genghis Khan (Universal Ruler), was a man of strongly Nordish racial ancestry. According to the Persian historian Ab ul Ghasi, the tribal clan to which Temujin belonged, were known as the Bourchikoun (Grey-Eyed Men). [Günther (1934) 185; Lamb (1928) 22.] The ancestral mother and founder of this clan was known as Alan goa (beautiful Alan). According to the Mongol and Chinese legends on the subject, she was said to have been visited in her tent by a divine being, who possessed golden hair, a fair complexion and grey eyes. Shortly after this visitation, she gave birth to the first member of the Bourchikoun clan. [Günther (1934) 184.]

Temujin himself was noted in Chinese descriptions of him, for his tall stature and heavy beard. [Günther (1934) 185.] We should also note the following depiction of Temujin's appearance, as given by Harold Lamb, in his biography of the great Khan:

"He must have been tall, with high shoulders, his skin a whitish tan. His eyes, set far apart under a sloping forehead, did not slant. And his eyes were green, or blue-grey in the iris, with black pupils. Long reddish-brown hair fell in braids to his back." [Lamb (1928) 23.]

Ab ul Ghasi also observed that the family of Yesugai, the father of Temujin, were known for the fact that their children often had fair complexions, and blue or grey eyes. [Günther (1934) 185.] Temujin's wife, Bourtai, bore a name which means "Grey-Eyed". [Lamb (1928) 23.] As both Günther (1934) and Lamb (1928) note, Temujin's relatives and descendants also possessed fair features: Temujin's son and successor Ogadei (1229-41), had gray eyes and red hair; Temujin's grandson Mangu (1251-9), had reddish eyebrows and a red-brown beard; Subatei, who conquered China, had a long, reddish beard. Indeed, it was said that people were surprised Kubilai Khan had dark hair and eyes, because most of Genghis Khan's descendants had reddish hair and blue eyes. [Günther (1934) 185.]

TAMERLANE

Another of Genghis Khan's descendants, the great conqueror Tamerlane (1336-1405), also inherited Nordish racial characteristics. According to a contemporary, Ibn Arabshah, Tamerlane was tall and strong, with broad shoulders, a large head and high forehead, he had a heavy beard, was white-skinned and had a ruddy complexion. He also seems to have been fair-haired. [Günther (1934) 187; Lamb (1929) 153.]

This description has been confirmed in recent times. In 1941, the Soviet Archaeological Commission opened the tomb of Tamerlane, which resides in the city of Samarkand, Uzbekistan. Within it, Tamerlane's physical remains were discovered: they proved that he had indeed been a man of strong build and imposing stature. Most interestingly of all however, the last few hairs of a reddish-brown moustache were found adhering to the skull. [Brent (1976) 237-8.]

* * *

Do portraits prove that Genghis Khan was predominantly Mongoloid? There are various images which depict Genghis Khan with the distinctively Mongolian epicanthic eyefold. However, it should first be noted that all such images were executed many years after the Khan's death, by artists who never actually laid eyes upon him. The portrait below, taken from the Imperial Palace Museum, Beijing, is just one example. [Paludan (1998) 152.] Many others exist, painted by unknown artists, at an indefinite period of time. The provenance and value of such works for racial classification, is therefore rather feeble. Put simply, the accuracy of these images cannot be vouched for.

[Paludan (1998) 152]

Equally, we cannot rely with great certainty on the judgement of the portraitists. As Day correctly comments, there is always the ethnic bias of the artist to contend with, since "artists perhaps tend to give their subjects something of their own physical traits". [Day (2001) 360.] A vivid illustration of this fact can be found in the portrait below, of the nineteenth-century American seaman, Commodore Perry. This contemporary picture, by a Japanese artist, depicts Perry as strongly Mongoloid in type, with a definite epicanthus. Perry, of course, was entirely Caucasian, yet the artistic conventions of the Japanese make him appear otherwise. Thus, we must be extremely cautious when accepting such "portraits", quite literally, at their "face value".

[Smith (1979) 231]

Were the ancient inhabitants of East Asia entirely Mongoloid? Craniological evidence reveals that during the second millennium BC, Caucasians were predominant throughout much of Central Asia, and they maintained hegemony over several areas in the region. Thus, as Day notes: "Caucasoids not only outnumber[ed] Mongoloids in Xinjiang; they also predate[d] them." [Day (2001) 192.] Even into later eras, a Caucasian minority, strongly "Northern European" in physical type, was retained. [Day (2001) 138.] The Buddhist murals at Bezeklik (see below), in the eastern part of the Tarim Basin, near the Mongolian border, bear witness to the fact that just over a thousand years ago, rugged Caucasoids, with reddish-brown hair and blue eyes, could still be found in abundance. [Day (2001) 138-9.] Eickstedt argued that these murals depict individuals of Nordic and "Proto-Nordic" (protonordoidem) type. [Eickstedt (1934) 276.] At this point, it would be germane to remember the fact that it was precisely these features (reddish hair and blue eyes) that were found as an ancestral inheritance among the family of Genghis Khan.


[Day (2001) ii]	[Barber (1999) xxix]

Do the experts agree that Genghis Khan was red-haired and blue-eyed? The German physical anthropologist Egon von Eickstedt, who was an expert on the racial types of Asia, stated clearly that the ruling classes of the Far East, most particularly those among the Mongols, included Nordic racial elements. He affirmed that Genghis Khan's family was characterised by its blue eyes and reddish hair, and that although Kubilai Khan (1259-94) had a ruddy-fair complexion, he had hair and eyes that were unusually dark for Temujin's clan. Eickstedt even noted that Temujin's grandson Batu (†1256), the first Khan of the Golden Horde, was freckled! Therefore, there is nothing at all extreme or unusual in attributing Nordish physical features to Genghis Khan: on the contrary, it is an historical fact, well-attested to by the major authorities in this field of expertise. To conclude, here is the original quotation from Eickstedt on the subject, with my emphasis added throughout:

"Aber auch noch später machte sich die protonordische Komponente in China bemerkbar, denn sie wurde selbstverständlich auch von den im Mittelalter China erobernden Barbaren der westlichen Steppen noch mitgeführt. Das hat offenbar sogar besonders für deren Oberschichten gegolten. Ein Beispiel dafür ist der berühmte Kaiser Kublai Khan, der Gönner Marco Polos, von dem eine rötlich-weiße Komplexion ausdrücklich berichtet wird. Aber trotzdem war Dschingis-Khan, der Eroberer Asiens, nicht etwa d a r ü b e r erstaunt, sondern im Gegenteil über die relative Bräune des Kaisers, da ja „die meisten Mitglieder seiner Familie sonst blaue Augen und rötliche Haare hatten!“ Dabei war Dschingis-Khan, der „Kaiser der Welt“ — und er war es beinahe wirklich, der einzige, der je diesen Titel mit einem gewissen Recht trug —, selbst rassisch höchst interessant. Denn er entstammte dem Geschlecht der Buschikun oder Grauäugigen, einem unter allen Stämmen Zentralasiens weitverbreiteten Herrscherclan, und wird geschildert als hochgewachsen, mit weißlicher, schimmernder Haut, mit grünen oder grauen Augen, die nicht geschlitzt waren, und mit langem, rötlichbraunem Haar, das ihm in Zöpfen über den Rücken fiel. Seine vom Vater gewaltsam geraubte Mutter Yühlun war sibirischer (sibirider?) Herkunft. Man kann nur schließen, daß in den Adern dieses größten Abenteurers und Machtmenschen aller Zeiten auch Blut aus nordischer Quelle floß. Seine Erst- und Lieblingsfrau war Burtai, die „Grauäugige“. Weiterhin wird der bekannte Prinz Batu auch als sommersprossig geschildert." [Eickstedt (1934) 274-5.]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Barber, E. W. (1999) The Mummies of Ürümchi (London: Macmillan).

Brent, P. (1976) The Mongol Empire: Genghis Khan, His Triumph and His Legacy (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson).

Day, J. V. (2001) Indo-European Origins: The Anthropological Evidence (Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of Man).

Eickstedt, E. von (1934) Rassenkunde und Rassengeschichte der Menschheit (Stuttgart: Ferdinand Enke Verlag).

Günther, H. F. K. (1934) Die nordische Rasse bei den Indogermanen Asiens (Munich: J. F. Lehmanns Verlag).

Lamb, H. (1928) Genghis Khan: The Emperor of All Men (London: Thornton Butterworth).

Lamb, H. (1929) Tamerlane: The Earth Shaker (London: Thornton Butterworth).

Paludan, A. (1998) Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors (London: Thames & Hudson).

Smith, B. (1979) Japan: A History in Art (Tokyo: Toppan Printing Company).

Lucius Malfoy is not Pure blood., Shock

2008-10-06T17:34:00.003+13:00

Harry Potter and Lucius Malfoy worked together, so jews will get money because Aryan Beauty JK Rowling was being racist using Pure Blood and Mud blood.

All Harry Potter cast and JK Rowling had to donate money to Jew Museum.

(born 6 June 1963) is a British actor born in Liverpool, England, best known for his performances as Death Eater Lucius Malfoy in the Harry Potter films.

At the Hootie & the Blowfish Monday After The Masters Celebrity Pro-Am Golf Tournament, North Myrtle Beach, South Carolina, on 11 April 2005
doesn't have long blonde hair.

Jason Isaacs was born on 6 June 1963, in Liverpool, Lancashire, in England, to Jewish parents, who later emigrated to Israel,^[9] spending his earliest childhood years in an "insular" and "closely-knit" Jewish community of Liverpudlians, of which his Eastern European great-grandparents were founder-members.^[10] The third of four sons,^[1] Isaacs attended a Jewish school and a cheder twice a week as a young adult

Daniel Jacob Radcliffe^[1]^[2] (born 23 July 1989)^[3] is an English film, television and stage actor. He is best known for playing Harry Potter in each of the first five films based on the best-selling Harry Potter book series, and will also appear in the final three films of the series
Radcliffe was born in Queen Charlotte's Hospital, West London, England,^[5] the only child of Alan Radcliffe, a literary agent, and Marcia Gresham (born Marcia Gresham Jacobson),^[6]^[7] a casting agent who was involved in several films for the BBC, including The Inspector Lynley Mysteries and, most recently, Walk Away And I Stumble. Radcliffe's mother is Jewish and grew up in Westcliff-on-Sea, Essex;^[7]^[8] his father grew up in Northern Ireland.^[9] Radcliffe first expressed a desire to act at the age of five.^[10] In December 1999, he made his acting debut in the BBC's televised two-part version of the Charles Dickens novel David Copperfield, portraying the title character as a young boy.

Radcliffe appeared on the Sunday Times Rich List in 2006, which estimated his personal fortune to be GB£14 million, making him one of the richest young people in the United Kingdom.^[37] He made another appearance on the British young people's rich list in 2007, which placed him as the thirty-third richest young person in Britain with an estimated wealth of £17 million.^[38] He is reported to have earned approximately £250,000 for the first Potter film, around £5.6 million for the fourth film, and more than £8 million for Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. Despite his wealth, Radcliffe has said he does not have expensive tastes. Radcliffe has said that his main expense is books, as he "read[s] a lot".^[39] Radcliffe has been a supporter of various charities, including Demelza House Children's Hospice in Sittingbourne, Kent, to which he has requested fans make donations in lieu of birthday presents. In February 2005, Radcliffe put a "Hogwarts Crew" T-shirt which he autographed up for auction to help raise money for the Tsunami victims in 2005. His T-shirt was part of the Tsunami Celebrity Clothes Auction which raised money for the Rebuilding Sri Lanka Organization. He wore the t-shirt during the making of the film, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. These T-shirts were only issued to members of the cast and crew. His shirt raised £520 or $995. He has become a keen follower of cricket^[40] and attended the first England v India test match on his 18th birthday. He queued up for the autographs of Indian batting maestro Sachin Tendulkar and English opening batsman Andrew Strauss at the end of the final day's play.^[41] Regarding this, he stated

Radcliffe has said that he is "very proud of being Jewish" but is not religious.

udaism

Many prominent rabbis have described the Harry Potter books as, in the words of one, "a force for good".^[64] In 2005, a conference at Reading University debated whether Harry Potter had "a yiddishe neshama", or Jewish soul.^[65] Sir Jonathan Sacks, the chief rabbi of the Commonwealth of Nations, claims that, in "a society in which adolescents are precociously adult, and adults are permanently adolescent", Harry Potter has "reclaimed the kingdom of childhood, proving that you don’t have to betray to enchant".^[66]

The decision to release the final volume of the Harry Potter series, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, in Israel at 2 AM on Saturday morning briefly angered many of Israel's rabbis, since it fell during the Jewish Sabbath, a time when business dealings are not meant to be conducted.^[67

Because Harry Potter says Purebloods are Evil.

When asked about the politics and message in Harry Potter, Rowling explained, "I wanted Harry to leave our world and find exactly the same problems in the wizarding world. So you have the intent to impose a hierarchy, you have bigotry, and this notion of purity, which is this great fallacy, but it crops up all over the world. People like to think themselves superior and that if they can pride themselves in nothing else they can pride themselves on perceived purity. So yeah that follows a parallel [to Nazism]. It wasn't really exclusively that. I think you can see in the Ministry even before it's taken over, there are parallels to regimes we all know and love."^[5] She also said, "You should question authority and you should not assume that the establishment or the press tells you all of the truth."^[6]

The Wall Street Journal compared Neville Chamberlain to Rowling's Cornelius Fudge saying both were eager to help their constituents look the other way to avoid war. "Throughout the '30s, Chamberlain, fearing that Churchill was out for his job, conducted a campaign against his fellow Tory. Chamberlain denied the existence of the German menace and ridiculed Churchill as a "warmonger." He used the London Times--the government's house organ--to attack Churchill and suppress dispatches from abroad about the Nazis that would have vindicated him." The author also said Dumbledore was analogous to Winston Churchill.^[7] Rowling confirmed Chamberlain was her inspiration in the Spanish newspaper magazine XLSemanal.^[8] Rowling also told the Dutch newspaper The Volkskrant that Voldemort was "a sort of Hitler," and that her decision to draw parallels with Nazism in the books was immediate.^[9]

Racism, ethnic cleansing, and Nazism

This chart for distinguishing Jews, Germans, "mixed blood: first degree" and "mixed blood: second degree", used in Nazi Germany is redolent of the "pure-blood", "half-blood" and "Mudblood"/"Muggle-born" divisions used in Harry Potter.

Analysts note the criticism of racism in JK Rowling's texts.^[18]^[19] The American communist newspaper People's Weekly World noted parallels between the historical records of Rowling's admitted heroine Jessica Mitford's fight against Nazism, which other members of Mitford's aristocratic family notoriously supported, and similar conflicts inside the Black family in Harry Potter.^[19]

When asked about the theme of racism and if it has changed how people think, Rowling said "I do not think I am pessimistic but I think I am realistic about how much you can change deeply entrenched prejudice, so my feeling would be that if someone were a committed racist, possibly Harry Potter is not going to have an effect."^[20]

When asked in a post-Deathly Hallows webchat about Hermione's future, Rowling said, "Hermione began her post-Hogwarts career at the Department for the Regulation and Control of Magical Creatures where she was instrumental in greatly improving life for house-elves and their ilk. She then moved to the Dept. of Magical Law Enforcement where she was a progressive voice who ensured the eradication of oppressive, pro-pureblood laws."^[21]

After the publication of Deathly Hallows, Rowling responded to queries about metaphors in the books for ethnic cleansing: "Well, it is a political metaphor. But... I didn't sit down and think, 'I want to recreate Nazi Germany', in the—in the wizarding world. Because—although there are—quite consciously overtones of Nazi Germany, there are also associations with other political situations. So I can't really single one out."^[22] Rowling also compared her character Voldemort to paranoid megalomaniacs like Hitler and Stalin.^[23]

In her 2007 book tour Rowling further discussed the parallels to Nazism, stating "It wasn't really exclusively that. I think you can see in the Ministry even before it's taken over, there are parallels to regimes we all know and love." She prefaced the remark, saying "People like to think themselves superior and that if they can pride themselves in nothing else they can pride themselves on perceived purity."^[24]

Rowling stated on her website that the Harry Potter phrases 'pure-blood', 'half-blood' and 'Muggle-born' compared to "some of the real charts the Nazis used to show what constituted 'Aryan' or 'Jewish' blood. I saw one in the Holocaust Museum in Washington when I had already devised the 'pure-blood', 'half-blood' and 'Muggle-born' definitions, and was chilled to see that the Nazis used precisely the same warped logic as the Death Eaters. A single Jewish grandparent 'polluted' the blood, according to their propaganda."^[25]

Christopher Hitchens noted in The New York Times that the lightning bolt - the shape of the scar which Harry received as a result of Voldemort's curse, now considered to be emblematic of the series - is also the symbol of Sir Oswald Mosley's British Union of Fascists, a prominent group of Nazi sympathizers during the 1930s and 1940s.^[26]

JK Rowling mentions in an article that Mosley was married to Diana Mitford, sister of her heroine, Jessica Mitford. Jessica, whom Rowling named her daughter after, never forgave Diana's Nazi sympathies.^[27] Oswald and Diana married in 1936, in the Berlin home of Nazi chief Joseph Goebbels with Adolf Hitler as a guest. JK Rowling also noted that Mitford's other sister Unity, to whom Jessica was closest in youth, became an arch-fascist and favourite of Adolf Hitler's.^[27]

In a New York event hosted by MSNBC news anchor Keith Olbermann, Rowling confirmed the intentional similarities between Voldemort and Hitler.^[28]

In an act commemorating the Holocaust, Harry Potter actor Daniel Radcliffe, whose mother is Jewish, donated his first pair of glasses to an art exhibition inspired by a famous World War II photo of a mangled mountain of spectacles of victims of ethnic cleansing. Dan's Potter co-star Jason Isaacs, who plays Lucius Malfoy, will participate in the commemorations on National Holocaust Memorial Day, when he leads a service at Liverpool's Philharmonic Hall.

JK Rowling, Emma Watson, Ron and Draco aslo were forced to give money.

WESTERN EUROPEAN GENETIC REMNANTS IN EGYPT

2008-10-06T17:32:00.000+13:00

WESTERN EUROPEAN GENETIC REMNANTS IN EGYPT

The historical record shows that the Ancient White Egyptians were finally overwhelmed by Black Nubian and Semitic invaders circa 800 BC. Additional non-White influences were further added with the Muslim invasion of Egypt after 700 AD, creating the heavily mixed population of modern Egypt.

As a result, it comes as no surprise that recent genetic testing in Egypt shows an overwhelming non-White footprint. In spite of the thousands of years of racial mixing, however, a 'WESTERN EUROPEAN' strain was still detected - along with a marked north-south cline in genetic patterns in Egypt, consistent with Black Nubian influence spreading from the south.

Note: the authors of this study attribute the Western European haplotype XV to "Near East, Greek, and Roman influences" - a conclusion that is obviously incorrect as they themselves point out that the haplotype XV is most common in Western Europe, and NOT the 'Near East'.

Original Roman and Macedonian types were of course similar to modern day Western Europeans, but it is unlikely that they ever occupied the region in sufficient numbers to make a statistically detectable impact upon the genetic make-up of Egypt. Obviously, the authors never considered the possibility of ancient racial elements in Egypt which were similar to present day Western Europeans.

http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/103020851/ABSTRACT

American Journal of Physical Anthropology

Volume 121, Issue 1 , Pages 63 - 66

Y-chromosome haplotypes in Egypt

G. Lucotte^*, G. Mercier

International Institute of Anthropology, Paris, France

^*Correspondence to G. Lucotte, Centre de Neurogénétique Moléculaire, 44 rue Monge, 75005 Paris, France

Abstract

We analyzed Y-chromosome haplotypes in the Nile River Valley in Egypt in 274 unrelated males, using the p49a,f TaqI polymorphism. These individuals were born in three regions along the river: in Alexandria (the Delta and Lower Egypt), in Upper Egypt, and in Lower Nubia. Fifteen different p49a,f TaqI haplotypes are present in Egypt, the three most common being haplotype V (39.4%), haplotype XI (18.9%), and haplotype IV (13.9%). Haplotype V is a characteristic Arab haplotype, with a northern geographic distribution in Egypt in the Nile River Valley. Haplotype IV, characteristic of sub-Saharan populations, shows a southern geographic distribution in Egypt.

As for mtDNA (Krings et al., [1999]), the present study on the Y-chromosome haplotype shows that there are northern and southern Y-haplotypes in Egypt. The main Y-haplotype V is a northern haplotype, with a significantly different frequency in the north compared to the south of the country: frequencies of haplotype V are 51.9% in the Delta (location A), 24.2% in Upper Egypt (location B), and 17.4% in Lower Nubia (location C). On the other hand, haplotype IV is a typical southern haplotype, being almost absent in A (1.2%), and preponderant in B (27.3%) and C (39.1%). Haplotype XI also shows a preponderance in the south (in C, 30.4%; B, 28.8%) compared to the north (11.7% in A) of the country. In mtDNA, sequences of the first hypervariable HpaI site at position 3592 allowed Krings et al. ([1999]) to designate each mtDNA as being of northern or southern affiliation, and proportions of northern and southern mtDNA differed significantly between Egypt, Nubia, and the Southern Sudan.

It is interesting to relate this peculiar north/south differentiation, a pattern of genetic variation deriving from the two uniparentally inherited genetic systems (mtDNA and Y chromosome), to specific historic events. Since the beginning of Egyptian history (3200-3100 B.C.), the legendary king Menes united Upper and Lower Egypt. Migration from north to south may coincide with the Pharaonic colonization of Nubia, which occurred initially during the Middle Kingdom (12th Dynasty, 1991-1785 B.C.), and more permanently during the New Kingdom, from the reign of Thotmosis III (1490-1437 B.C.). The main migration from south to north may coincide with the 25th Dynasty (730-655 B.C.), when kings from Napata (in Nubia) conquered Egypt.

Concerning less frequent Y-haplotypes in Egypt, haplotype VIII is characteristic of Semitic populations, originating in the Near East (Lucotte et al., [1993]). For example (Lucotte et al., [1996]), the frequency of haplotype VIII is 26.2% among North African Jews (where it represents the majority haplotype) and 77.5% among Jews from the island of Djerba (Tunisia), reaching 85.1% among Oriental (from Iraq, Iran, and Syria) Jews. Similarly, haplotype VII had a general geographical distribution fairly identical to that of haplotype VIII (which it often accompanies as a secondary haplotype); haplotype VII distinguishes itself by increased preponderance north of the Mediterranean and in Eastern Europe (Lucotte et al., [1996]). Haplotype XV is the most widespread Y-haplotype in Western Europe (Lucotte and Hazout, [1996]), where its frequency decreases from west to east (Semino et al., [1996]; Lucotte and Loirat, [1999]). Haplotypes VIII, VII, and XV are less common haplotypes in Egypt (7.3%, 6.6%, and 5.5%, respectively), and tend to be located in the north of the country, near the Mediterranean coast. Possibly haplotypes VIII, VII, and XV represent, respectively, Near East, Greek, and Roman influences.

Racial Mixing in Selected European Groups

2008-10-06T17:31:00.000+13:00

Part 1 : INTRODUCTION

A source of considerable controversy – but critical to the understanding of the pivotal role of race in history - is the issue of racial mixing.

Anybody reviewing the cause of the rise and fall of civilizations, as outlined in this book, will have seen the common theme running throughout all of history: namely, that a civilization or culture remains intact for as long as the people who created that civilization or culture, remain intact. Readers unfamiliar with this concept are urged to read chapter 9 of this book before proceeding.

RACE MIXING, ANCIENT AND MODERN

There are some basic issues which form the basis of the explanation behind important periods in White history:

1. Racial mixing has occurred in a number of European nations, in both historical and modern times.

2. This book has pointed out and discussed racial mixing in historical times in the following nations: Portugal; Spain; Italy; the Netherlands; Albania; Yugoslavia; Greece; Romania; Bulgaria; Southern Russia; South and Central America; South Africa; and the far north of the Scandinavian lands.

3. This book has pointed out and discussed racial mixing in modern times in the following nations: France, Britain, all of Western Europe, the USA and Canada.

4. The fact that racial mixing has occurred in these countries does NOT mean that ALL people from those countries are of mixed descent. Anyone making this assertion (as for example: “ALL Portuguese people are of mixed descent” etc.) is either ignorant, or spreading deliberate lies.

In Portugal, for example, the population is very clearly divided between a White grouping and a mixed race grouping, and nowhere will the reader find in this book an assertion that “all Portuguese are of mixed descent.”

This applies equally to every other nation mentioned as having a mixed race element, from Spain to Russia, from Scandinavia to South Africa.

5. In some of these countries, the incidence of racial mixing was, or is now, far higher than in other countries.

6. In all of these countries, the Mendelian laws of Inheritance, as they apply to racial mixing, can be seen in action. This means that overtly non-White features of mixed race peoples will only be obvious in the first generation or two of mixed race people. As the non-White genes become more dispersed as the incidence of racial mixing increases, so many of the features - nose shape, skull shape and even hair texture will start to approximate the majority racial group into which the non-White element is being absorbed.

MIXED RACE POPULATIONS BREED FASTER

Another vital issue in this regard is to appreciate that where such a mixed race grouping has been created, this group then also multiplies by itself and therefore grows its own numbers naturally without implying that increasing numbers of Whites are affected.

In other words, it may be so that, theoretically speaking, initially only 5 percent of the Whites in any given country mix with a non-White population. The resultant mixed race group then multiplies by itself, most often far faster than the remaining pure Whites, and thus end up as larger percentage of the overall population.

For example: possibly a country may have a 20 percent mixed race population. However, very many of these individuals are themselves the offspring of mixed race parents.

To say that 20 percent of a country’s inhabitants are of mixed race, does NOT mean that 20 percent of the Whites in that country are mixed. All it means is that out of all the people living there, 20 percent are of mixed origin of one sort or another – and very often the mixed race element has grown by itself.

Above left: A mixed race person who is more White than Black: US Secretary of State, Colin Powell, 2002. Compare his features and coloring to Idi Amin, a pure Black and former ruler of Uganda, right.

ALTHOUGH THE US POPULATION IS PROJECTED TO BE 40% OF MIXED ORIGIN, THIS DOES NOT MEAN THAT 40% OF WHITE AMERICANS HAVE MIXED

A practical example of this self multiplying mixed race element principle, which is unfolding right now, is the US population projections:

USA Population Projections, millions (rounded off)

	1997	2000	2010	2020	2030	2040	2050
Total	267	275	298	323	347	370	394
White	195	197	202	207	210	210	208
White % of total	72.8	71.8	68	64.3	60.5	57	52.8

(Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series P25-1130, "Population Projections of the United States by Age, Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin: 1995 to 2050". )

Although real White numbers are actually set to rise slightly over the coming decades, expressed as a proportional percentage of the total population, White numbers will drop.

As Hispanics are already largely of mixed race, and Negroes have a large amount of White blood in them, it will thus be perfectly accurate to say that in 50 years time, more than 40 percent of the American population will be of mixed racial origin – this despite White numbers having risen in real terms.

To say that 40 percent of the USA’s population is of mixed descent, does NOT mean that 40 percent of all White Americans have miscegenated. It merely means that the mixed race component in the USA will compromise 40 percent plus of the population (and that this will then seriously affect the functioning of the state).

SOUTH AFRICAN RACIALLY-MIXED POPULATION AS LARGE AS THE WHITE POPULATION

In South Africa, as a last example, the mixed-race population is, in the year 2002, in numbers terms, as large as the White population.

Yet this does not mean that all White South Africans are of mixed descent. All it means is that the initial spurt of racial mixing which did take place (between White, Bushmen, Malay slave and Black) has created a mixed-race population grouping, which has then increased in numbers by itself over the years to where it is now as large – in excess of 4 million - as the White population.

Above: Two prominent racially mixed types in modern South Africa: Left: The South African Minister of Finance in 2002, Trevor Manuel, who, although formally classified as being of "Colored" (or mixed race) under the Apartheid government, has blue eyes; and alongside, Allan Boesak, prominent anti-Apartheid theologian.

This very same logic applies to all the countries named in this book: Portugal; Spain; Italy; Albania; Yugoslavia; Greece; Romania; Bulgaria; Southern Russia; South and Central America; South Africa; Scandinavia, France, Britain, all of Western Europe, the USA and Canada – the size of these nations’ mixed race elements does NOT mean that that percentage of Whites miscegenated.

HOW MANY AND WHERE?

Unfortunately there are as of yet no scientific measures of the numbers of mixed race individuals in Europe, north or south, dating from either ancient or modern times. This is because no attempt was ever made, then or now, to count or categorize them. With genetic testing, it would of course be easy to identify and number such persons, but for prevailing political reasons, such an undertaking is unlikely in the near future.

There are figures for racially mixed persons in South Africa and the USA, because in those countries, specific categories either were created for mixed race individuals, or have recently been created. (South Africa dispensed with its system of racial classification after the mid 1990s, so all figures in this regard date from approximately 1990, and are thus already quite old. The USA, in its latest census, created a category for persons of mixed race.)

SOUTH AFRICA - 16% ESTIMATED MIXED RACE POPULATION

In South Africa, the current estimates of mixed race individuals range between 3.5 million and 5 million, out of a total estimated population of 45 million. This means that around 11 percent of South Africa's population is of mixed racial ancestry.

To this figure must be added the estimated 6 percent of South African Whites who are, by popular allegation, to have had some mixed ancestry in their family tree during the 400 years Whites have been present in that region (See the chapter on South Africa in this book and also the practical South African example discussed in the section on Mendelian genetics below). A final figure of around 16 percent is therefore the most likely estimate of the number of mixed race individuals in South Africa.

USA - MINIMUM ESTIMATED MIXED RACE POPULATION OF 15.27 %, LIKELY TO BE HIGHER

In the USA, according to the 2000 census, some 7 million Americans claimed to be of mixed racial origin. As discussed earlier, this is a gross underestimation as very many Blacks in the US are in fact of mixed racial origin.

The self classification system indicates a mixed race population of 4.2 percent - in reality this figure is much more likely to be far higher, given the racially mixed nature of much of the Hispanic and Black populations.

Even if only half of the Hispanic and Black populations are of mixed ancestry - and it is certain to be more - then a figure of 42 million mixed race individuals in the USA in 2000 is likely to be the most accurate estimate. This figure is calculated by taking the official US 2000 Census statistics of Hispanics (35.3 million); Blacks (34.6 million), adding the two together (69.9 million) and then halving the sum to reflect racially mixed types (35 million). The self declared 7 million mixed race category - counted separately in the US 2000 Census - is then added to this figure to reach 42 million.

Expressed as a percentage of the entire US population, this means that 15.27 percent of the USA's population can safely be assumed to be of mixed racial origin in the year 2000. As stated before, the true figure is likely to be higher, as most Hispanics are of mixed origin.

THESE SAME STATISTICS LIKELY TO BE REPLICATED ELSEWHERE

Taking the South African and US examples as a mean, it would therefore not be unreasonable to speculate that the numbers of mixed race individuals in other European dominated countries are likely to follow this trend and be between 10 and 20 percent, depending upon region.

In some areas, the extent of racial mixing is clearly higher - for example, regions of Sicily where observation of the local population will tell even a casual observer that the figure is potentially double the norm - while in other areas, the figure is clearly lower, as can be seen in Northern Portugal.

This general estimate is backed up by the percentage incidence of sickle cell disease in Americans of Mediterranean origin, as discussed in a separate section below.

This then is the basic overview: the rest of this appendix will deal with genetic tracking of racial mixing in selected European population groups, with practical examples.

THE MULTI-RACIAL DECLINE OF CITIES IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA - A PHOTOGRAPHIC ESSAY

2008-10-06T17:30:00.001+13:00

THE MULTI-RACIAL DECLINE OF CITIES IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA - A PHOTOGRAPHIC ESSAY

No nation is so big and so powerful that it does not fall prey to the iron laws of the survival of its civilization. A civilization will continue intact as long as the people, or race, who built that civilization, remain present.

As soon as those originating people disappear, or are assimilated into a new racial group, then that original civilization will "fall" or become changed to reflect the new racial population make-up.

This is why the Ancient Indo-European civilizations in the Middle East lie in ruins;

Above: The ruins of the palace of Darius, King of Persia

This is the reason why the Ancient Egyptian civilization lies in ruins;

Above: the ruins of the temple of Ramses II, Thebes, Egypt

This is the reason why the Ancient Greek civilization lies in ruins;

Above: the ruins of the Parthenon, Athens.

This is the reason why the Ancient Roman civilization lies in ruins:

Above: the ruins of the Forum in Rome.

In each and every one of these cases, the original White population was displaced by an immigrant non-White or mixed-race population. The very nature of those civilizations was changed as the new, largely mixed-race population, was unable to maintain the original technical and cultural levels of the White civilization. These civilizations "fell" because the people who created them, vanished.

And now, as the United States of America starts to change its racial make-up, the same factors are at work: formerly White cities are turning into ruins, quite literally. To view the modern US equivalents of the ruins of White civilization, follow the individual city links listed below.

The Ruins of Detroit

New York City - Washington DC

Newark - Philadelphia - St. Louis

March of the Titans

2008-10-06T17:21:00.000+13:00

Best Book about Our White Race.

http://www.white-history.com/

Inbreeding

2008-10-06T17:19:00.000+13:00

Inbreeding

Global prevalence of consanguinity

"As a working definition, unions contracted between persons biologically related as second cousins (F ³ 0.0156) are categorized as consanguineous. This arbitrary limit has been chosen because the genetic influence in marriages between couples related to a lesser degree would usually be expected to differ only slightly from that observed in the general population."
(Background summary of consanguinity)

As you can see, consanguineous marriages are low among most Europeans and European descendants, and comparatively high among groups from most other parts of the world that have been investigated (possibly excluding some northern Mongoloids). Consanguineous marriages are especially high in the Muslim world, and even among non-Muslim Middle Easterners and their descendants.

Jewish inbreeding

Jewish groups, including Ashkenazi Jews, are heavily inbred. This inbreeding results both from the relatively small initial size of the Jewish gene pool coupled with strong tendencies towards endogamy, as well as the fact that Jewish culture traditionally allows and favors highly consanguineous marriages. Judaism allows uncle-niece marriages, for example.

Religious law may differ however, and marriage between uncle/niece and aunt/nephew is specifically forbidden in the Koran but permitted for Jewish communities.
http://www.genetics.com.au/genetics/resource/factsht/F13.pdf
Jewish: Uncle-niece and first-cousin marriage is allowed.
http://www.geneletter.org/features/issue2/kissingcousins.html
For example, first cousin marriages are legal in countries such as the U.K. and Australia, but they are criminal offences in eight of the states of the U.S.A. and illegal in a further 31 states (Ottenheimer 1990). Yet exceptions can be incorporated into state laws, for example, to permit uncle-niece marriage within the Jewish community of Rhode Island (Bratt 1984).
http://www.consang.net/Summary/

The co-efficient of inbreeding for an uncle-niece marriage is 1/4, compared to 1/2 for parent-child and 1/8 for first cousins. Among (non-Jewish) white Americans, even first cousin marriages came to be seen as backwards. It is amusing when certain Jews call white individuals "inbred" without realizing that they are likely to be much more inbred than the person they're applying that label to; and without realizing that their Jewish culture sanctions highly consanguineous marriages that many white Americans would find disturbing. By using "inbred" as an insult, they are ignoring their own culture and background and adopting mainstream American snobbery, which snobbery should deem real Jewish practices even worse than those of caricatured "rednecks".

An individual afflicted with Bloom Syndrome.

The effects of Jewish inbreeding

Jewish inbreeding has led to the emergence of various "Jewish diseases". Diseases unusually common among Ashkenazi Jews include Tay-Sachs, Gaucher, Canavan, certain breast cancer genes, Mucolipidosis IV, and others. Bloom Syndrome, for example, is caused by a problem in a gene that:

is involved in the copying and repair of the genetic information in the cells of the body. The most serious characteristics of this condition are a predisposition to cancer and infections.

Other features of Bloom Syndrome:

Short stature

Immunodeficiency

Photosensitivity

Diabetes mellitus

Male sterility

Racial Reality

2008-10-06T17:18:00.000+13:00

In August of 2003, RM renamed his site "Racial Reality", mainly in response to "Racial Myths" having been shown for the joke it is by this site. Besides changing the name, RM redesigned his site to try to make it appear more "objective" to unwary visitors (or, as RM himself recently put it, "Racial Reality" targets "uninformed web surfers"). However, most of the material used remains unchanged, and the refutations on this page still stand. Below, I respond to what little new material RM has added.

Basques are the "purest" Europeans?

RM claims Basques are:

confirmed to be the oldest, most genetically pure of all European populations . . . lacking recent non-European admixture

RM cherry-picks a single study which found no "Neolithic" male lineages in a Basque sample, and goes on to conclude that "'mixed-looking' phenotypes . . . are entirely native to Europe". Actually, Basques "are little more of a Mesolithic relict than any other European population" (M. Richards, Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2003. 32:135–62). On the male side, Basques tend to be low in "Neolithic" ancestry compared to southern Europeans, but not especially low compared to northwestern Europeans.

Most Basques are of course not racially ambiguous in appearance, but as regards those who are it is incorrect to claim they are necessarily of "pure" European ancestry. Berber haplogroup E-M81 has been detected in at least two seperate samples of Spanish (but not French) Basques (Cruciani et al., Am J Hum Genet. 2004 May;74(5):1014-22; Semino et al., Am J Hum Genet. 2004 May;74(5):1023-34), and:

The relatively young TMRCA of 5.6 ky (95% CI 4.6–6.3 ky) that we estimated for haplogroup E-M81 and the lack of differentiation between European and African haplotypes in the network of E-M81 (fig. 2C) support the hypothesis of recent gene flow between northwestern Africa and Iberia. (Cruciani et al. 2004)

Note that in Europe, E-M81 is found only in Iberia and Italy (i.e., Berber ancestry is detected in Portugal, Spain, and Italy, but not in Britain; Cruciani et al. (2004) did detect E-M81 in (non-Basque) France, but their sample consisted of blood donors, and I assume E-M81 in France is associated with recent North African and Portuguese immigrants). So the presence of E-M81 in Spanish Basques makes them quite a lot less "pure" than most other Europeans when it comes to Berber ancestry.

It is true that there have probably been both "light" and "dark" types in Europe since the Paleolithic, as I've pointed out before. It's also conceivable that one may occasionally come across a pondersome looking European who owes his phenotype to chance recombination of native European genes, rather than non-European ancestry. However, RM is wrong to claim Basques are "pure" and therefore "ambiguous" Basques necessarily reflect indigenous phenotypes. It's even more logically unsound to draw an analogy between Basques, who overwhelmingly carry Paleolithic European Y chromosomes and who only rarely look "ambiguous", and southern Italians, most of whom carry non-European Y chromosomes and many of whom show a non-European cast.

"Celts" are closely related to Basques?

Claims such as the following have appeared in the press over the past few years:

The Welsh and Irish Celts have been found to be the genetic blood-brothers of Basques, scientists have revealed. (BBC News)

The connection is this: Western British and Irish populations share with the Basque very high frequencies of R1b Y chromosomes. Below, I'll show that Basques and "Celts" are distinct in their frequencies of autosomal and mtDNA markers, but first some background on R1b.

Y haplogroup R1b

R1b is associated with some of the earliest inhabitants of Europe who have left male line descendants down to the present. The Y chromosomes ancestral to R1b probably entered Europe over 30,000 years ago, carried by "Cro-Magnons". During the Last Glacial Maximum, climate change forced Europeans into a handful of refugia in southern Europe (R1b is associated with a refuge in southwestern Europe; I with a refuge in central Europe or the Balkans; and R1a with a refuge in the Ukraine). It is of course incorrect to assume the ice age inhabitants of these refugia were related in appearance to modern southern Europeans. According to Stephen Oppenheimer:

The archaeology shows us how the south-western refuge of the Basque country drew cultures and presumably people down from north-west Europe during the lead up to the LGM. (Out of Eden, p. 251)

Oppenheimer points out that both Y and mtDNA evidence support the view from archaeology. Following the LGM, the descendants of northern European hunters expanded back into northern Europe, leaving a strong imprint on the Basque male gene pool. Today, most of the inhabitants of northern Europe have a mix of Y chromosomes from the major refugia. But due to geographic isolation, the inhabitants of western Britain and Ireland have maintained very high levels of R1b. This makes them extremely distant cousins to the Basque, not "blood-brothers". We can also note that the Y chromosome pools of Basques and "Celts" are strongly differentiated in some ways. For example, as noted above, Spanish Basques have experienced gene flow from Berbers, while "Celts" have not. Moreover, mutations like R1b8, which mark more recent expansions from Iberia, are found in western Britain only sporadically and not at elevated frequencies compared to eastern Britain.

Autosomal markers

The lists below show genetic distances between the Irish and the Basque and selected poulations based on Cavalli-Sforza's analysis of data on 'classical' markers (from HGHG, Table 5.5.1.)

Distance from Irish

Irish 0
Scottish 29
English 30
Danish 68
Belgian 75
Dutch 76
Norwegian 79
Spanish 113
Basque 145

Distance from Basque

Basque 0
French 93
Spanish 104
Belgian 107
Dutch 118
English 119
Russian 140
Italian 141
Irish 145

The Irish are more closely related to all north-west and north-central Europeans than they are to the Basque. Basques are more closely related the English, the Dutch, and even Russians than they are to the Irish, according to autosomal data. We can also note that in the fifth PC of classical variation in Europe -- which C-S claims "corresponds to the progressive retreat of the boundary of the Basque language" -- Ireland (along with Britain, Scandinavia, and a large swathe of central Europe) is at the opposite pole from Basque country. Iberia, France, Italy, even Russia and the Caucasus are closer to Basque country on this PC than Ireland is.

mtDNA

The plot below shows that when considering mtDNA the Irish and Welsh are distinct from the Basque and these "Celts" cluster with other northern Europeans (Source: PNAS 98(9):5078-5083).

Seafaring Armenoids in Northern Europe?

Years after I originally took apart his ridiculous claims about "hamito-semitic" britons, RM continues to propagate misinformation on the subject. Despite RM's assertion that "I no longer maintain that there's a Hamito-Semitic influence in Britain", his "hamito-semitic britons" page remains online and he has actually added additional "evidence": an excerpt from a 1957 paper by Bertil Lundman on "The Problem of Ancient Oriental Shipping on the North Sea" (which, tellingly, RM has mis-labeled on his "References" page with the title of the "blog" entry by Dienekes which was RM's immediate source for this "evidence"). The facts on my page about Britain stand, and no further comment should be necessary. But since Pontikos and RM insist on circulating excerpts from this odd Lundman paper, we might as well dispose of its claims (thanks to Karl Earlson for his comments and for providing the image used below).

* Lundman tries to associate Deniker's litoral type with Armenoid invaders, but there's not much room for comparison: the Litoroid is tall, slender, long-headed, and small-nosed; the Armenoid is short, planoccipital, and large-nosed with a tendency to obesity.

* The supposed descendants of Armenoids Lundman "discovered" in Scandinavia don't sound particularly Armenoid. They are described as "tall" and "slim", not short and fat. They are said to have "large, slightly and evenly curved but scarcely fleshy noses". Needless to say, many northern Europeans have convex noses and this has nothing to do with Armenoids. Likewise, some fraction of northern Europeans are dark and broadheaded; this is part of their natural variation, and one need not seek the origin of these traits among sea-borne Armenoids. The fact that Lundman identifies supposed Near Eastern types in Ireland completely discredits his theory: modern genetics shows Near Eastern Y chromosomes are practically absent from Ireland (and any stray "Neolithic" Y chromosomes which found their way to Ireland most likely diffused northwest across Europe via land over a period of thousands of years).

* Lundman asks if certain "dark" navigators of English history "were the descendants of the ancient Tyrrhenian seafarers from Tyre?" More on these "dark" navigators below, but the fact that Lundman brings up the Phoenicians in the context of Britain is enough to discredit his theory. There is no archaeological evidence for Phoenicians ever having set foot in northern Europe. Furthermore, the exploitation of metal deposits in Britain began thousands of years before the Phoenicians existed, and where outside involvement in British mining is indicated the evidence points to west-central Europe, not the Near East.

* Lundman admits that "most of England's great navigators were conspicuously blond", but he then attempts to single out three, Drake, Dampier, and Cook, who he believes were of his pseudo-Armenoid type. Of course, like members of all northern European populations, Englishmen vary in pigmentation; so it would be surprising if Lundman could name no examples of dark English historical figures. But it's interesting that at least one of Lundman's three daring navigators of supposed Near Eastern ancestry is not particularly dark. As shown in the portrait below, Drake is ruddy, grey-blue-eyed, and brown-haired with blond beard.

mtDNA haplogroup M1

RM claims M lineages in the Mediterranean are "proto-Asian". Actually, coalescence analysis shows the age of haplogroup M in eastern Africa is similar to that in India, and researchers have been unable to conclusively determine where M originated. Regardless, the M lineages which occur in Italy and Greece mainly belong to M1, which most likely traces an expansion from East Africa within the past 10,000-20,000 years:

The presence (~20%) of the 'Asian' mtDNA haplogroup M, defined by the 10400 CT transition, is unique in eastern Africa7. As in Asia, the haplogroup M in Ethiopia belongs to a superhaplogroup (L3), which encompasses almost all Eurasian and a considerable number of African mtDNAs (Refs 8,9).

[. . .]

The two groups are considerably different (Table 1). The eastern-African group, named M1, is characterized within M by a consensus HVS-I motif defined by four transitions at nt 16,129, 16,189, 16,249 and 16,311. This HVS-I signature motif is not found either in our or other10 Indian samples, whereas it characterizes most of the M types sporadically observed in the Mediterranean area11, 12 and 7% of Nile Valley sequences13. . . . The African and Indian M phylogenies are highly divergent.

[. . .]

We calculated the coalescence time for haplogroup M mtDNAs in eastern Africa and India using the statistic (ref. 14) by RFLP and HVS-I. The age of eastern-African haplogroup M, calculated using RFLP data (48,000+-15,000), is compatible with that of Indian haplogroup M (56,000+-7,000; Table 2), whereas a lower age is obtained using HVS-I data. In fact, the root of the eastern-African M1 clade is separated from the root of M by four transitions (Fig. 3), which, even if hypervariable, needed some time to be accumulated (a few thousand or a few ten-thousand years). A somewhat more recent coalescence of haplogroup M in eastern Africa (that is, in the area of the Oromos) than in Asia can be explained by coalescent theory: a small localized population cannot maintain the same level of diversity as a population that expanded and spread over an entire continent. Thus, it is plausible that haplogroup M already existed in eastern Africa approximately 60,000 years ago. The four subgroups (I–IV) of M1 (Fig. 1) may have similar ages of approximately 10,000–20,000 years. These values may correspond to local expansions of these subclades followed by dispersals, leading to the sporadic presence of M along the Mediterranean.

[. . .]

Thus, in the context of the out-of-Africa model1, the following scenario can be envisaged: haplogroup M originated in eastern Africa approximately 60,000 years ago and was carried toward Asia. This agrees with the proposed date of an out-of-Africa expansion approximately 65,000 years ago10. After its arrival in Asia, the haplogroup M founder group went through a demographic and geographic expansion. The remaining M haplogroup in eastern Africa did not spread, but remained localized up to approximately 10,000–20,000 years ago, after which it started to expand.

Source: Quintana-Murci et al. Genetic evidence of an early exit of Homo sapiens sapiens from Africa through eastern Africa. Nature Genetics 23(4):437-441 1999.

Dark-haired Germanic nobility?

RM picked up this theme from Greek CompSci student "Dienekes Pontikos", who some time ago decided (apparently based on a fictional movie he saw) that northern European aristocrats have dark hair and therefore he has something in common with them. Pontikos clings to this idea and uncritically appeals to the authority of H.S. Chamberlain to support his view. Here, Karl Earlson responds:

RM states: "even the old Germanic nobility was predominantly dark-haired." Here, he is ultimately citing Chamberlain, via Hankins, via Pontikos:

http://www.dienekes.com/blog/archives/000157.html

The text in question, concerning "Fair Hair", can be found in Chamberlain's "Foundations of the Nineteenth Century", Vol. I, pp. 522-526:

http://www.hschamberlain.net/grundlagen/division2_chapter6.html

But there is nothing to any of this. I'll pick it apart just to show how empty these statements are, and reveal how nothing is proven.

[1] Chamberlain states: "Eckermann was struck by the brown eyes of Wellington."

But Wellington WASN'T brown-eyed! Please read this quote, describing Wellington's appearance in 1814:

"He was just forty-five, in the pride of manhood: lean, springy, his hair still brown, his eyes whether frozen over or sparkling as blue as ever, [...] and his profile impressively Roman."

Lady Elizabeth Longford, Wellington: The Years of the Sword (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1972), p. 415.

Lady Longford was not only a descendant of Wellington's, but her biography of the Duke is considered to be a standard work on the subject. Incidentally, German anthropologists (e.g. Guenther and Fischer) routinely classified Wellington as a Nordic type.

[2] Chamberlain states: "poets from the extreme north of Germany pretty frequently speak of dark hair as a characteristic feature not only of the nobility but also of the people".

But the examples he provides, Theodor Storm's "Hans und Heinz Kirch", as well as the works of Goethe, are VERY late in composition (18th & 19th Century works). Similarly, the Storm examples he gives decribe "defiant Germanic seamen" and "another daring figure, Hasselfritz"; in other words, COMMON people of recent times, not the "old Germanic nobility". Chamberlain goes on to state that "those genuine Teutons therefore resemble Achilles with his 'brown hair'." But Achilles was depicted by the ancient Hellenic authors as yellow-, red-, and even golden-haired! See Sieglin (1935) for the details about this. [Sieglin, W. (1935) Die blonden Haare der indogermanischen Völker des Altertums (Munich: J. F. Lehmanns Verlag).] Equally, Chamberlain relies on anonymous authority when he says: "How often, too, in the folksongs do 'dark brown eyes' occur!" No examples are cited, so the statement lacks any real value. In direct contrast to this, Biehahn (1964) has collected a range of descriptions from various German poets, which talk approvingly of blond hair and blue eyes, praising such features as beautiful, truly Germanic, heroic characteristics, etc. Indeed, Biehahn even refers to a "cult of blondness" in German literature.

Biehahn, E. (1964) "Blondheit und Blondheitskult in der deutschen Literatur." Archiv für Kulturgeschichte, 46, 309-333.

[3] Chamberlain states that the predominant type "in German Tyrol, whose inhabitants Henke says 'represent the true type of the primeval Teuton'", for the most part, have "dark and often black hair".

However, this is wrong on several points. The ancient Germanics were fair-haired and long-headed. On the contrary, the modern Tyroleans are largely dark-haired and broad-headed. This question is discussed and proved at length in Schwidetzky (1979). Even Chamberlain acknowledges this in his next section, titled "The Shape of the Skull". He mentions that "Germanic peoples, wherever they have not crossed with others or only to a small extent, as in the north, are long-skulled and fair" and in contrast to this, the "Un-Germanic, short-skulled, dark type" reveals that "in these phenomena we see the effects of the infiltration of an Un-Germanic race, a race which does not belong at all to the Indo-European circle, but to the raceless chaos". I wouldn't go as far as Chamberlain in his polemic, but the point is made nonetheless.

Schwidetzky, I. (1979) "Rassengeschichte von Deutschland." I. Schwidetzky [ed.], Rassengeschichte der Menschheit, 7. Lieferung. Europa V: Schweiz, Deutschland, Belgien und Luxemburg, Niederlande (Munich: R. Oldenbourg Verlag), 45-101.

[4] Chamberlain mentions several times the so-called "Moltke type (or, as the English say, the Wellington type)", to which he attributes dark hair. Wellington has already been dealt with above. As for Moltke, he was fair-complexioned, and various German physical anthropologists (Guenther, von Eickstedt, etc.), classified him as Nordic. See the picture of Moltke here (Fig. 300):

http://www.white-history.com/earlson/hfk/reoehchap10.htm

[5] Chamberlain refers to: "the prevalence of dark colour among the members of the most genuine old Germanic nobility." Once again, this is simply an opinion, and since no evidence is adduced in its favour, none is needed to refute it. Chamberlain also claims that: "In England this is quite striking." However, Chamberlain was not a professional physical anthropologist, and in the opinion of a genuine anthropologist, namely Coon:

"In general, differences in social level and in occupation reflect racial differences, which show themselves to a certain extent in pigmentation. The upper social strata, being on the whole blonder, follow the pigment pattern of the Saxons, Danes, and Normans. This differentiation may well have been even stronger in the Middle Ages, when social lines were more strictly and overtly drawn than today. The Englishman who travels abroad and is seen by foreigners, and the one whose photograph frequently appears in the London Illustrated News, is more likely to be blond than the general run of his more obscure compatriots who stay at home, and whose faces are publicly depicted only when they have committed crimes."

http://www.fikas.no/~sprocket/snpa/chapter-X3.htm

Wurm (1993) has collated a list of the earliest descriptions of the highest Germanic nobility, and from these he has compiled a composite portrait of the typical German nobleman. The nobles are described as being tall and athletic in form, with handsome facial features, bright and flashing eyes, a fair or florid complexion, and fair hair and beard. Wurm mentions specific references to white-blond, golden-blond and reddish-blond hair colours, and only one (possible) brown-haired individual. Wurm concludes by noting that the Germanic nobility belonged to the tall, muscular, long-headed, sharply-profiled, Nordic-Germanic racial type of the Reihengräber.

[Wurm, H. (1993) "Menschentyp und Macht im Früh- und beginnenden Hochmittelalter (750 bis 1000 n. Chr.)." Würzburger medizinhistorische Mitteilungen, 11, 235-260.]

One must always bear in mind the fact that Chamberlain was in many senses a polemicist: all Germans are equally Germanic, both blond and brunet, Celts and Slavs are Germanic, Jesus was an Aryan, so Christianity is also Germanic, etc. His work undoubtably contains much of value, but his opinions must always be carefully sifted, and not accepted at face value. Finally, note this quote by Chamberlain, on the early Germanen:

"the great radiant heavenly eyes, the golden hair, the gigantic stature, the symmetrical muscular development, the lengthened skull (which an ever-active brain, tortured by longing, had changed from the round lines of animal contentedness and extended towards the front), the lofty countenance, required by an elevated spiritual life as the seat of its expression". [p. 535]

http://www.hschamberlain.net/grundlagen/division2_chapter6.html

"Cambro-Britannic Hebraisms"
The most amusing new piece of evidence RM presents is a list of "Cambro-Britannic Hebraisms" apparently published in 1675 by a Welsh scholar named Charles Edwards, which RM copied from a website (http://www.geocities.com/Athens/8431/welsh.html) promoting the work of Yair Davidy, an Israeli proponent of the theory that Lost Hebrew Tribes are to be found in Britain. Of course, this sort of "evidence" doesn't merit a serious response. This absurd line of argument just further proves RM's complete lack of objectivity (and/or lack of analytic ability).

Italian genetics
Do studies on the Y-chromosome suggest "gene flow from North Africa in historical times has been minimal"?

RM writes:

A subclade of North African Y-chromosome haplogroup 21 (labeled 25.2), which distinguishes Berbers, was detected in Lombardy at a frequency of 5.6%, Sardinia at 2.3% and Sicily at 2.1%, suggesting that gene flow from North Africa in historical times has been minimal. (Scozzari et al., Hum Immun, 2001)

The study RM cites certainly proves no such thing. First of all, "HG25.2, was identified by using a marker from the pseudoautosomal region", NOT by using a marker from the non-recombining portion of the Y-chromosome. The authors suggest the crossover event that defines HG25.2 happened only once, but it is impossible to prove this, and if they are wrong, the "subclades" they have identified are effectively useless.

Moreover, even if it is informative to divide HG21 using a pseudoautosomal marker:

1. This study only deals with Morrocans. There is no evidence here that "HG25.2" (which is of course not an actual NRY haplogroup) is especially prevalent in other North Africans.

2. Even within Morocco, "Arabs" have much lower levels of "HG25.2" than Berbers. We would expect the Saracens who invaded southern Italy to be mainly "Arabs", not Berbers. And, indeed, southern Italians share with Moroccan Arabs relatively high levels of "HG25.1".

Haplogroup 25.1 was found at its highest frequency (41%) in the Arabs from Morocco, but it was also very common in the Sicilians, the Sardinians from Bitti, and in some groups from continental Italy. The Berbers from Morocco could be clearly differentiated from the Arabs of the same region by the frequency of HG25.2 (71% and 29%, respectively), a haplogroup distinguished from its ancestor (HG25.1) by the G allele at XY275Y. Interestingly, HG25.2 in Europe was found only in western populations, with a particularly high incidence (42%) in the Pasiego from the Pas valleys (Figure 4B).

Do autosomal studies show there has been little gene flow between North Africa and Southern Europe?
RM states:

An autosomal analysis of 10 ancestry-informative markers in Southern Europeans (including Italians, Sicilians and Sardinians) and various Middle Eastern/North African populations revealed a "line of sharp genetic change [that] runs from Gibraltar to Lebanon," which has divided the Mediterranean into distinct northern and southern clusters since at least the Neolithic period. The authors conclude that "gene flow [across the sea] was more the exception than the rule," attributing this result to "a joint product of initial geographic isolation and successive cultural divergence, leading to the origin of cultural barriers to population admixture." (Simoni et al., Hum Biol, 1999)

Amusingly, in an attempt to give himself credibility RM has picked up a "scientific"-sounding catch-phrase from the AncestryByDNA people and misapplied it. "Ancestry Informative Markers", in ABD-terminology, are SNPs specially chosen because they appear at markedly different frequencies in different racial groups and therefore are supposedly especially useful in inferring race. In fact, the Simoni et al. study is based on "classical" genetic markers -- blood groups and protein markers; not SNPs, much less SNPs specially selected to be "ancestry informative".

For each of the 39 regions 1 or more allele frequencies for 6 blood group systems (ABO, Duffy, Kell, MN, Rh, P; 8 independent alleles overall) and 2 serum protein systems (GC, HP) were available, for 10 alleles overall. In practice, 1 allele was discarded at each locus to approximate statistical independence of the data. When more than 1 sample had been typed in 1 region, median allele frequencies were calculated. In this way we obtained an almost complete data matrix of 10 allele frequencies in 39 regions (Table 1).

This is not the best sort of data to be working with, though I'll give the authors the benefit of the doubt and assume that their findings are meaningful, if inexact. But, the authors themselves admit:

These data are far from uniformly distributed. Several European populations have been typed at many loci, and the Asian and African populations have been typed much less so. Also, the data matrix is largely incomplete, because different loci have been described in different populations. In the first step of data analysis, the spatial autocorrelation analysis, this did not present a problem. However, in the second phase, the identification of genetic boundaries, several samples had to be collapsed on the basis of their geographic or linguistic affinities to avoid statistical problems arising from missing data. Moreover, some loci were discarded, decreasing the number of allele frequencies to 886.

The authors also mention:

Note, however, that according to the original sources, only 2 of the North African samples considered in this study included individuals defined as Arabs.

This point may be important, since one expects that gene flow during periods of Moorish occupation in southern Europe, for example, would have come more from North African "Arabs" than from the more isolated "Berbers". And, as we saw above, Y-chromsomal evidence supports this idea.

As for what the authors do claim, it is mostly in keeping with what we already know. Unfortunately, the authors make no attempt to quantify or date admixture (though, considering the quality of their data, it is probably wise that they refrain), so the paper adds little new information.

The most evident feature of the gene frequency patterns described in this study is the presence across the Mediterranean of a longitudinal line of sharp genetic change. This line, supported by analyses based on 2 different measures of genetic distance, runs from Gibraltar to Lebanon; it includes all 5 sharpest genetic boundaries identified on the basis of Prevosti's distances (Figure 2) and 4 of the 5 sharpest boundaries identified using Nei' s distances (Figure 3). Other genetic boundaries, surrounding groups such as Basques, Jews, Sardinians, and Corsicans, are weaker. This strong north-south differentiation clearly suggests that the sea has contributed to isolating the populations of the northern and southern coasts. Localities along the same coast are separated by barriers of lesser importance or by no barrier at all.

This is common sense. It would be surprising if they found otherwise. Of course there will be more genetic exchange between neighboring areas of Europe than between Europe and Africa.

Had the sea distance been the main isolating factor, we would have expected greater genetic differences in the eastern part of the Mediterranean. Exactly the opposite appears to be the case. The genetic boundary separating northern Morocco and Algeria from southern Spain appears as the zones of sharpest genetic change using Prevosti's distances and as the second most significant zone of change (after the zone separating Israeli Jews from all their neighbors) using Nei's distances. The ranking of the genetic boundaries recognized in this study tends to decrease as one moves east, despite sea distances being greater there. Thus it is the presence of the sea rather than the sea distance between localities that seems to have exerted the main isolating effect.

This finding is in keeping with Y-chromsomal variation. SW Europe generally has less Middle Eastern and North African ancestry than SE Europe.

The authors do claim "gene flow [across the Mediterranean] was more the exception than the rule for a substantial period of time." (RM neglected to include the end of that sentence.) Of course, the authors are in no position to quantify how long this "substantial period of time" has been. 1000 years? 2000? 10000? When discussing the clines in their results, the authors mention potential links to the Neolithic expansion, the Arab expansion in north Africa, and possible Paleolithic origins. But:

Because dating allele frequency patterns requires a number of untestable assumptions, we prefer not to draw any strong conclusions at this stage.

Nor can they quantify levels of gene flow in absolute terms. Their data shows only that lately there has been relatively more gene flow between neighboring populations in southern Europe than between southern Europe and Africa. The authors make no attempt to quantify admixture, nor is it likely their data is suitable for that task. Here is the quote in context:

What kind of evolutionary process or combination of processes can most likely account for the pattern of genetic diversity described in this study? The distribution of the most significant genetic boundaries indicates that the demographic history of the populations of the 2 main coasts were largely independent. Although population movements across the sea are historically well documented and have certainly played an evolutionary role by mixing alleles of different origins (Sokal 1991), the existence of sharp genetic differences between the northern and the southern coasts means that gene flow was more the exception than the rule for a substantial period of time. Note that only in the eastern Mediterranean are many islands present; this may have favored population contacts by reducing the sea distances to be covered.

Interpreting Cavalli-Sforza's principal components of genetic variation in Europe

2008-10-06T17:16:00.000+13:00

Interpreting Cavalli-Sforza's principal components of genetic variation in Europe

Introduction

I created this page in response to a couple people who were proffering interpretations of Cavalli-Sforza's "PCs" based on outdated information and a poor understanding of the topic. Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza was, for a time, a central figure in population genetics research; but he certainly is not infallible. The (mostly tentative) interpretations Cavalli-Sforza gave for the PCs in HGHG were not to be taken as gospel at the time the work was published, much less a decade on, when new evidence has come to light.

Cavalli-Sforza's initial interpretations of the PCs

From Genes, Peoples, and Languages (1997) by Luca Cavalli-Sforza:

"Hidden patterns in the geography of Europe shown by the first five principal components, explaining respectively 28%, 22%, 11%, 7%, and 5% of the total genetic variation for 95 classical polymorphisms. The first component is almost superimposable to the archaeological dates of the spread of farming from the Middle East between 10,000 and 6,000 years ago. The second principal component parallels a probable spread of Uralic people and/or languages to the northeast of Europe. The third is very similar to the spread of pastoral nomads (and their successors) who domesticated the horse in the steppe towards the end of the farming expansion, and are believed by some archaeologists and linguists to have spread most Indo-European languages to Europe. The fourth is strongly reminiscent of Greek colonization in the first millennium B.C. The fifth corresponds to the progressive retreat of the boundary of the Basque language. Basques have retained, in addition to their language, believed to be descended from an original language spoken in Europe, some of their original genetic characteristics."

The above quotation sees Cavalli-Sforza at his most smug. In The History and Geography of Human Genes, Cavalli-Sforza was more circumspect about assigning meanings to the PCs, acknowledging, for example, the uncertainty over the meaning PC2 and suggesting it could just as well represent cold adaptation. Here, in a paper in which Cavalli-Sforza is trying to link genetic and linguistic evolution, he glosses over the uncertain nature of his interpretations. A few years on, science has proven the incorrectness, or, at least, incompleteness of Cavalli-Sforza's interpretations of PC2 and PC3.

What was wrong with Cavalli-Sforza's initial interpretations?

Some of Cavalli-Sforza's early interpretations of European genetic variation were misguided. Cavalli-Sforza was working under the misconception that genetic variation in Europe must all be attributed to events from the Neolithic onward, since he believed Europeans were mostly descended from Neolithic farmers. Cavalli-Sforza also had a special interest in trying to link genetic variation to linguistic variation, leading him to favor linguistic interpretations of PCs, even if the evidence supporting such an interpretation was entirely circumstantial.

Subsequent research has shown that Europeans largely descend from Paleolithic hunter-gatherers, and scientists have determined that Europeans mostly weathered the last ice age in refuges in Iberia and the Ukraine. Following the LGM, Europe was repopulated from these refuges. One must now expect that these postglacial expansions are responsible for much of the genetic variation in Europe, and some of Cavalli-Sforza's old interpretations must be discarded -- specifically, his interpretations of PC2 and PC3.

The Genetic Legacy of Paleolithic Homo sapiens sapiens in Extant Europeans: A Y Chromosome Perspective, a paper published in 2000 (more recent than "Genes, Peoples, and Languages" obviously), coauthored by Cavalli-Sforza, checks for and finds correlations between Y-chromosome haplotypes and the principal components determined by Cavalli-Sforza.

The most comprehensive previous survey of the European gene pool has been the PC analysis of 95 autosomal protein polymorphisms (5, 8). We compared the frequency distribution of the major Eu Y chromosome haplotypes with the first three PCs of Europe (Table 2). Because Sardinians were not included in the original PC analysis because of their pronounced outlier phylogenetic status (5), they were also excluded in our correlation analysis. The first PC, which was proposed to reflect the diffusion of Neolithic farmers (5, 8), correlates with Eu4, Eu9, Eu10, and Eu11 [Eu4 is the same as HG25 and M35; Eu9 is HG9; Eu11 is a sublineage of HG2]. The second PC, whose meaning has never been fully assessed (5, 8), is correlated with the spread of Eu18 [HG1] from Spain toward Central Europe [A postglacial expansion from a refuge on the Iberian peninsala also shows up in mtDNA] and, on the opposite pole, with the spread of Uralic TAT/M178 (Eu13 and Eu14) [HG16]. The third PC, the meaning of which has been debated (3, 5, 8), correlates to the M17 mutation (Eu19) [HG3, which represents another postglacial expansion from a refuge according to the most reasonable theories. It is wrong to attribute HG3 to the Proto-Indo-Europeans]. The concordance of protein-based PC and NRY data suggests that migration, more than natural selection, has influenced the pattern of NRY variation observed.

First principal component of genetic variation in Europe

PC1 correlates with Eu4 [incidentally, this is a YAP+ lineage that probably derives from Ethiopians within the past 20000 years], Eu9, Eu10, and Eu11. This component has been "proposed to reflect the diffusion of Neolithic farmers". That may be it's primary cause, but it may also incorporate earlier and later migrations from the Middle East.

mtDNA patterns are also consistent with a Neolithic expansion from the Near East.

Second principal component

PC2 correlates with HG1 and HG16 (in opposite directions). PC2 primarily represents an expansion from Iberia following the LGM. In the extreme North and East, Uralic influence may also be responsible for some of the variation in this component; but it can't be the primary cause (HG16 is absent from most of Western Europe, yet there is a cline in PC2 even within Spain). Further argument against Uralic genes as an important component of PC2 comes from the fact that PC2 is higher in Finns than in Hungarians, even though Cavalli-Sforza's methods determined that Finns have less Uralic ancestry than Hungarians.

Cavalli-Sforza states:

The second PC map shows a concentric gradient like that of the first but centered instead in the Iberian peninsula. The opposite pole of the second PC shows a strong peak among the Lapps, which are certainly no candidate for an expansion. There is no known demic expansion from the Iberian peninsula, and an interpretation based on a migration from this area seems unlikely. [Today, we know that there was in fact a population expansion from the Iberian peninsula following the last ice age. Due to his ignorance of this fact at the time he wrote HGHG, Cavalli-Sforza struggles to come up with an explanation for PC2, and ignores the fact that the map of PC2 features a concentric gradient centered in Iberia.] In general, there is a strong north-to-south gradient that might be interpreted on a climatic of ecological basis; but this interpreation does not take into consideration the existence of ethnic differences between the populations of northern Scandinavia, like the Lapps and other speakers of Uralic languages who occupied the northeastern areas of Europe, perhaps before the arrival of Neolithics.
The interpretation we gave in Menozzi et al. (1978a) was based on migrations from Asia. Although it would be historically absured to think in terms of an expansion centered in Lappland, the PC peak in this region may be explained by noting that Lapps have a stronger Mongoloid componenet than any eastern European population. . . Migration of steppe nomads or their descendants and the "barbarian" invasions towards the end of the Roman Empire and afterwards seem to have no influence on this PC.
[The History and Geography of Human Genes, p. 292]

The "Mongoloid" explanation for PC2 is totally unfounded.

As mentioned elsewhere, Hungarians have more "Uralic" ancestry than Finns, yet they are lower in PC2.

Cavalli-Sforza admits that historical Mongoloid invasions don't show up in PC2.

Likewise, Cavalli-Sforza admits that an expansion from Lappland "would be historically absurd".

One of the more obvious indications that PC2 represents an expansion from Iberia rather than Mongoloid influence is the fact that PC2 features a circular cline radiating from Iberia. Two pages after his strained attempt at explaining PC2, Cavalli-Sforza states:

The interpretation of synthetic maps is not always easy. The first question is, how can one hypothesize that a population expansion was involved? If there is a radiation of circular of elliptic clines from a specific area, an expansion is a possible explanation; and its place of origin must clearly be the center of the radiation. The alternative possibility of a centripetal, rather than centrifugal, population movement may have to be considered. The best way to distinguish them would be on a historical basis, but this evidence is usually lacking. In principle, a centrifugal movement is a priori more likely, but a centripetal migration could be that directed towards an important city, expecially a capital.
[The History and Geography of Human Genes, p. 294]

However, Cavalli-Sforza ignores his own observation and passes up the obvious interpretation of PC2 because of his desire at the time to align PCs with known migrations or linguistic expansions from the Neolithic onward.

The above map indicates approximate locations of refuges during the last ice age. HG1 spread from the Iberian refuge following the LGM, HG3 spread from the Ukraine refuge.

We interpret the differentiation and the distribution of haplotypes Eu18 and Eu19 as signatures of expansions from isolated population nuclei in the Iberian peninsula and the present Ukraine, following the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). In fact, during this glacial period (20,000 to 13,000 years ago), human groups were forced to vacate Central Europe, with the exception of a refuge in the northern Balkans (16). Similar discrete patterns of the flora and fauna in Europe have been attributed to glaciation-modulated isolation followed by dispersal from climatic sanctuaries (18). This scenario is also supported by the finding that the maximum variation for microsatellites linked to Eu19 is found in Ukraine (19). In turn, the maximum variation for microsatellites linked to 49a,f Ht15 and its derivatives (and then to the Eu18 lineage) is in the Iberian peninsula (19). This is consistent with the diffusion of M173-marked Eu18 from its refuge after the LGM, in agreement with mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup V and some of the H lineages (20). Haplotype Eu19 has been also observed at substantial frequency in northern India and Pakistan (12) as well as in Central Asia (12). Its spread may have been magnified by the expansion of the Yamnaia culture from the "Kurgan culture" area (present-day southern Ukraine) into Europe and eastward, resulting in the spread of the Indo-European language (21) [This idea is entirely speculative, and based on circumstantial evidence -- HG3 is high in one of the proposed Indo-European homelands, so HG3 must have something to do with the Indo-Europeans; it is clear to me that most HG3 had spread well before the Indo-Europeans appeared, and the Proto-Indo-Europeans contributed little if anything to the spread of HG3]. An alternative hypothesis of a Middle Eastern origin of Indo-European languages was proposed on the basis of archaeological data (3).
["The Genetic Legacy of Paleolithic Homo sapiens sapiens in Extant Europeans: A Y Chromosome Perspective"]

As reported above, the distributions of different Y-chromosome haplogroups are highly correlated with the first 3 principal components of genetic variation in Europe as determined by Cavalli-Sforza. The correlations are not perfect, nor do they need to be. Y-chromosome haplogroup distributions are subject to genetic drift. Likewise, autosomal markers are subject to drift and possible selection.

Though the Y-chromosome tells only half the story, studies on mtDNA confirm the migrations that show up in Y-chromosomes and protein markers.

For example,

With regard to age and frequency, there is a clear cline from west to east (fig. 4); the age for V in the west (16,000 years) is almost twice that in the east, indicating the direction of settlement. We interpret this pattern in the following way: the older age reflects the onset of the recolonization of Europe from western refugia (Housley et al. 1997), whereas later founder events are responsible for the limited occurrences and reduced diversity of V mtDNAs in the east.
A Signal, from Human mtDNA, of Postglacial Recolonization in Europe

The genetic signature of a postglacial expansion from a refuge in SW Europe.

(A) Cavalli-Sforza's second principal component of genetic variation in Europe.¹

(B) The distribution of mtDNA haplgroup V.³

Note that while neither mtDNA nor Y-chromosome haplogroup distributions precisely match PC2, when considered together, they can be seen to account for most of the variation in PC2. Also, remember that Cavalli-Sforza's maps merely show variation, and assigning "high" or "low" values to the poles is a matter for the person doing the interpreting. Here, Cavalli-Sforza has assigned "high" to Lappland, because that's how he interpreted the map at the time. This piece of outdated interpretation is irrelevant to us. All that is relevant is that PC2 shows concentric gradients centered in Iberia, consistent with a population expansion from Iberia.

Third principal component

PC3 correlates with HG3. PC3 represents an expansion from North of the Black Sea following the LGM. It has been speculated that PC3 and HG3 are associated with the spread of Indo-European. But, several different studies have demonstrated that the spread of HG3 predates the spread of Indo-European.

PC3 is often wrongly identified as being associated with the expansion of the Kurgan people. I have provided evidence elsewhere that this interpretation is incorrect. However, even before such evidence was available, it was irresponsible to blindly associate this PC with a linguistic/archaeological expansion based solely geographic coincidence. In HGHG, Cavalli-Sforza acknowledges that "interpretation of synthetic maps is not always easy" and "it is often difficult to link a cline of gene frequencies with a precise historical expansion" (294). And, though in HGHG he strongly favors associating PC3 with the Gimbutas hypothesis (the expansion of the Kurgan people), Cavalli-Sforza admits "it is . . . difficult to assign unequivocally the third . . . PC to a specific migration" (293).

HG3 in India predates the Aryan invasion. As well, HG3 is present at high levels in low caste Indians and lower levels in high caste Indians.⁵ This is not the distribution one would expect if HG3 had been brought to India by Indo-Europeans. And, here again is more evidence that the spread of HG3 predates the spread of Indo-European:

The 49a,f haplotype 11 is a new marker of the EU19 lineage that traces migrations from northern regions of the Black Sea.
Passarino G, Semino O, Magri C, Al-Zahery N, Benuzzi G, Quintana-Murci L, Andellnovic S, Bullc-Jakus F, Liu A, Arslan A, Santachiara-Benerecetti AS.
Dipartimento di Genetica e Microbiologia, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy.
Previous studies on human Y-chromosome polymorphisms in the European populations highlighted the high frequency of the 49a,f/TaqI haplotype 11 and of the Eu19 (M17) lineage in Eastern Europe. To better understand the origin and the evolution of the Eu19, and its relationship with 49a,f Ht11, this study surveyed 2,235 individuals (mainly from Europe and the Middle East) for the 49a,f Ht11 and for many biallelic markers defining the Eu19 lineage. As previously described, the highest frequency of Eu19 was found in Eastern Europe. All the Eu19 Y-chromosomes turned out to be 49a,f Ht11 or its derivatives, the distribution of which suggests that the Eu19/49a,f Ht11 emerged in Ukraine, probably in a Palaeolithic population. Thereafter, the spread of this lineage toward Europe, Asia, and India occurred at different waves over a few thousands years. At present this seems to indicate the influence of the Ukraine Palaeolithic groups in the gene pool of modern populations. For the first time it is possible to make inferences about the evolution of some haplotypes of the 49a,f system. In spite of its unknown molecular base, this is one of the first most informative polymorphisms of the Y chromosome.
PMID: 11543894 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

Addendum

In response to this page, RM created his own page on genetic variation in Europe. RM's page rehashes what RM was told about Cavalli-Sforza by an Irish-Jewish teenager with a reading disability. RM latched onto this misinterpreted and outdated information because it fits his agenda of "sticking it to the Nordicists" he hates so much. RM's page does not warrant a detailed refutation (I've already repeatedly explained the facts to him, both on the message board, and on this page). However, one obvious mistake (which he picked up from the aforementioned teenager) that bears pointing out is RM's belief that the second principal component of genetic variation in Asia is "[European] PC2 extended to Asia", and that both European and Asian PC2 represent Uralic influence. In fact, Asian PC2 is no such thing. It is, quite simply Asian PC2, not European PC2, and it is generated using data from Asia, not Europe. Moreover, we can confirm by actually reading HGHG (a task I don't think RM is up to) that Asian PC2 (unsurprisingly) is correlated with a different set of genes than the ones European PC2 is correlated with. Additionally, at no point does Cavalli-Sforza suggest Asian PC2 is associated with Uralic. Rather, Asian PC2 is "the difference between northern and southern Mongoloids" (249). Trivial mistakes like this one remind us how little grasp RM actually has of the material he presumes to interpret.

Sources

1. Cavalli-Sforza, LL. Genes, peoples, and languages. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997 Jul 22;94(15):7719-24.

2. Semino et al. The Genetic Legacy of Paleolithic Homo sapiens sapiens in Extant Europeans: A Y Chromosome Perspective. Science 2000 Nov 10;290(5494):1155-9.

3. Torroni et al. A signal, from human mtDNA, of postglacial recolonization in Europe. Am J Hum Genet 2001 Oct;69(4):844-52.

4. Guglielmino et al. Uralic genes in Europe. Am J Phys Anthropol 1990 Sep;83(1):57-68.

5. Majumder PP. Ethnic populations of India as seen from an evolutionary perspective. J Biosci 2001 Nov;26(4 Suppl):533-45.

6. Rosser et. al. Y-Chromosomal Diversity in Europe Is Clinal and Influenced Primarily by Geography, Rather than by Language. Am J Hum Genet 2000 Dec;67(6):1526-43.

7. Cavalli-Sforza et al. The History and Geography of Human Genes. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. 1994.

Additional reading

A Y-chromosome nomenclature system (Figure 1)

Patterns of classical genetic variation in Asia

Sicilians

2008-10-06T17:15:00.000+13:00

Dennis Hopper on Sicilians
From the film True Romance; screenplay by Quentin Tarantino. Cliff (Dennis Hopper) is talking to Sicilian mobster Coccotti (Christopher Walken).

CLIFF
Oh, don't bother. I got one.
(he lights the cigarette)
So you're a Sicilian, huh?

COCCOTTI
(intensly)
Uh-huh.

CLIFF
You know I read a lot. Especially things that have to do with history. I find that shit fascinating. In fact, I don't know if you know this or not, Sicilians were spawned by niggers.

All the men stop what they were doing and look at Cliff, except for Tooth-pic Vic who doesn't speak English and so isn't insulted. Coccotti can't believe what he's hearing.

COCCOTTI
Come again?

CLIFF
It's a fact. Sicilians have nigger blood pumpin' through their hearts. If you don't believe me, look it up. You see, hundreds and hundreds of years ago the Moors conquered Sicily. And Moors are niggers. Way back then, Sicilians were like the wops in northern Italy. Blond hair, blue eyes. But, once the Moors moved in there, they changed the whole country. They did so much fuckin' with the Sicilian women, they changed the blood-line for ever, from blond hair and blue eyes to black hair and dark skin. I find it absolutely amazing to think that to this day, hundreds of years later, Sicilians still carry that nigger gene. I'm just quotin' history. It's a fact. It's written. Your ancestors were niggers. Your great, great, great, great, great- grandmother was fucked by a nigger, and had a half-nigger kid. That is a fact. Now tell me, am I lyin'?

Of course, the history lesson delivered by Dennis Hopper is not 100% factual. But that in no way stops me from finding the scene amusing -- and it is even more amusing when people like RM are oversensitive to it.

Quentin Tarantino on his inspiration for the above scene:

I had heard that whole speech about the Sicilians a long time ago, from a black guy living in my house. One day I was talking with a friend who was Sicilian and I just started telling that speech. And I thought, “Wow, that is a great scene, I gotta remember that.”

If you've ever been tempted to accept as fact "history" you learn from movies, here is a good example of why that's a bad idea. Saracens no doubt left some genetic imprint on Sicily (though I can't quantify the extent to which they may have altered the racial character of the island). But:

(a) Contrary to the opinion of Tarantino's Afrocentric friend, the Saracens were not (predominantly) Negroid.

(b) It is unlikely that most Sicilians ever "were like the wops in northern Italy. Blond hair, blue eyes." Sicily had genetic ties to the eastern Mediterranean and North Africa long before Moors invaded.

The actual racial history of Sicily

Here, a scientist recounts the population history of Sicily and summarizes previous genetic research on Sicilians.

The making of the indigenous population of Sicily entered its final stages during the early centuries of the first millennium B.C. in the passage from prehistory to recorded history. The first of three waves of colonization to reach Sicily by sea, the Sicani, probably came from northern Africa by way of Spain and later settled the westernmost half of Sicily. In the eighth century B.C. a second mass migration led the Sicels or Siculi, an Indo-European population from the Italian peninsula, to occupy the eastern half of Sicily. The last population to colonize the extreme western area was the Elymians, coming from the Near East, most likely from Anatolia. The marked cultural differentiation that this type of colonization produced between eastern and western Sicily is known to us from archeological excavations and ancient historians, such as Thucydides, Herodotus, and Diodorus Siculus (La Rosa 1989; Moscati 1980, 1987, 1994; Pallottino 1981, 1984; Tusa 1994).

Since the end of the second millennium B.C., Carthaginian or Punic traders, descendants of the Phoenicians in the western Mediterranean, established trading posts along the Sicilian coast. After the Greek invasion during the mid eighth century B.C., they withdrew to the western half of Sicily. The Greeks then rapidly occupied the eastern coast, leaving only the mountainous center in the hands of the increasingly hellenized Siculi and Sicani. The eastwest cultural subdivision of Sicily gradually disappeared with the spread of Latin language and culture imposed by the Romans (third century B.C. to fifth century A.D.), then again under Byzantine (fifth through eighth centuries A.D.) and later under Arab rule (ninth through eleventh centuries). From the Middle Ages onward, Sicily was spared further mass migration to its shores. Whatever cultural subdivision had existed began to fade with time (Finley 1985; Moscati 1980, 1987, 1994; Pallottino 1981, 1984; Tusa 1994).

Once the waves of foreign invaders had ceased, local movements of individuals or small clusters began to characterize Sicily's history. Usually associated with marriage, this short-range migration causes gene flow between local populations. Genes circulated within the same or similar gene pools and consequently led to gradual genetic homogenization of geographically close local units and possible isolation between populations at larger distances. For a better understanding of the phenomena, researchers have sought to answer two questions: (1) Do cultural variability and genetic variability somehow correspond to one another; and (2) are there any traces of the ancient cultural dichotomy in the genetic structure of the present Sicilian population after so long a period of mainly short-distance movements?

For about two decades Cavalli-Sforza and others have related the patterns of some present genetic variations to the spread of ancient populations [summarized by Cavalli-Sforza et al. (1994)]. According to this relation, Piazza et al. (1988), using some classical genetic markers (HLA-A, HLA-B, ABO, Rh, MN, KEL, and HP), seemed to have data suggesting a genetic difference between eastern and western Sicily that could reflect the early pattern of colonization by the Greeks and the Phoenicians. Guglielmino et al. (1991) and Zei et al. (1993) used rare surnames in an effort to validate the hypothesis that the geography of human genes in Sicily maintains the memory of the genetic subdivision of the island following the ancient invasions.

An opposite result was reported by Rickards et al. (1992) and Walter et al. (1997) in their papers based on 10 erythrocyte polymorphisms and GM and KM allotypes. In their studies detailed analysis of the distribution of these markers in all nine Sicilian provinces highlighted a more complex pattern of genetic variability within the Sicilian population than a simple east-west differentiation. Clearly detected in the extant Sicilian gene pool was a clue for more recent gene flow of people from northern Africa and the Middle East superimposed on a predominantly Greek contribution.

[Rickards et al. Genetic history of the population of Sicily. Human Biology. August 1998 v70 n4 p699(16).]

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2008-10-06T17:12:00.000+13:00

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Interpreting Cavalli-Sforza's principal components of genetic variation in Europe

Interpreting Cavalli-Sforza's principal components of genetic variation in Europe

Introduction

Cavalli-Sforza's initial interpretations of the PCs

What was wrong with Cavalli-Sforza's initial interpretations?

First principal component of genetic variation in Europe

Second principal component

Third principal component

The 49a,f haplotype 11 is a new marker of the EU19 lineage that traces migrations from northern regions of the Black Sea.

Addendum

Sources

Additional reading

Sicilians

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Pigmentation of the Early Roman Emperors
by
Karl Earlson

Redheaded Pharaoh Ramesses II
by
Karl Earlson

BY
Karl Earlson